brief overview of metabolism of all the essential & non essential amino acids along with their metabolic defects and special proteins synthesized from them
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
Under normal dietary intake the majority of the ingested fructose is metabolized by the enterocytes of the small intestine primarily to glucose which is then delivered to the systemic circulation. In addition to glucose, the carbon atoms from dietary fructose are converted, by intestinal enterocytes, into several other metabolites including glycerate, glutamate, glutamine, alanine, ornithine, and citrulline.
However, diets containing large amounts of sucrose, high fructose corn syrup, or fructose alone, overwhelm the ability of the small intestine to metabolize it all and under these conditions a significant amount of fructose is then metabolized by the liver and to a lesser extent by other organs such as skeletal muscle.
Digestion of proteins, absorption of amino acids, synthesis of amino acids, catabolism of amino acids and synthesis of specialised non-protein compounds from amino acids for undergraduates
synthesis and degradation of glycine is discussed. specialized products formed from glycine is described in detail. disorders associated with metabolism of glycine is also explained.
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
Under normal dietary intake the majority of the ingested fructose is metabolized by the enterocytes of the small intestine primarily to glucose which is then delivered to the systemic circulation. In addition to glucose, the carbon atoms from dietary fructose are converted, by intestinal enterocytes, into several other metabolites including glycerate, glutamate, glutamine, alanine, ornithine, and citrulline.
However, diets containing large amounts of sucrose, high fructose corn syrup, or fructose alone, overwhelm the ability of the small intestine to metabolize it all and under these conditions a significant amount of fructose is then metabolized by the liver and to a lesser extent by other organs such as skeletal muscle.
Digestion of proteins, absorption of amino acids, synthesis of amino acids, catabolism of amino acids and synthesis of specialised non-protein compounds from amino acids for undergraduates
synthesis and degradation of glycine is discussed. specialized products formed from glycine is described in detail. disorders associated with metabolism of glycine is also explained.
designed for undergraduate level teaching of nitrogen metabolism in biochemistry. this is first in the series of three lectures. ideal for MBBS level teaching
Amino acid oxidation and the production of urea,
Catabolic pathways for phenylalanine and tyrosine.
Summary of the glucogeneic and ketogenic amino acids.
disorders of amino acids
Hormonal regulation of proteins metabolismOMEED AKBAR
During digestion, proteins are hydrolyzed into amino acids. Amino acids are absorbed by the capillaries of villi and enter the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
Overview of amino acid anabolism and catabolism and fate of ammonia in amino acid metabolism. This is targeted for MBBS, MD, BDS and general Biochemistry students
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
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2. Topic Overview
Introduction
Amino acid pool
Overview of amino acid metabolism
Metabolism of ammonia
Metabolism of individual amino acids
One carbon metabolism
3. Introduction
Metabolism of proteins is the metabolism of amino acids
Metabolism of amino acids is a part of the nitrogen metabolism
in body
Nitrogen enters the body in the form of dietary protein
Dietary proteins cant be stored as such but used for formation
of tissue proteins
For the formation of a new tissue protein all the essential amino
acids that cant be synthesized by the body(provided by dietary
protein) must be present at the same time with non essential
amino acids
6. Metabolism of Amonia(NH3)
Ammonia is liberated in the metabolism of AA & other
nitrogenous compounds and is toxic to the body
Mammals including man convert ammonia to non-toxic urea
for easy excretion
Urea is synthesized in liver (Urea cycle/Kreb’s-Henseleit cycle)
and transported to kidneys for excretion
Urea synthesis is a 5-step cyclic process with 5 distinct
enzymes( first 2 enzymes in mitochondria & rest in cytosol)
8. All enzymes invariably lead to a build-up in blood ammonia along with other
metabolites depending on the enzyme defect
The clinical symptoms associated with all the defects are more or less the same which
includes vomiting, lethargy, irritability, ataxia, and mental retardation
Ammonia metabolism
9. Blood urea – Clinical Importance
Normal blood urea concentration is 10-40 mg/dl
Elevation in blood urea maybe classified into:-
1. Pre-renal : increased protein breakdown leading to negative
nitrogen balance in conditions like prolonged fever, diabetic coma,
thyrotoxicosis, leukemias
2. Renal : disorders like acute glomerulonephritis, chromic nephritis
& nephrosclerosis
3. Post-renal : due to obstruction of urinary tract in conditions like
tumours, stones & enlargement of prostate gland
Ammonia metabolism
14. Estimation of serum creatinine(along with blood urea)is
used as a diagnostic test for assessing kidney function
Normal concentration of serum creatinine in man is 0.6-1.0
mg/dl
Glycine metabolism
18. Phenylketonuria
Accumulation of phe in tissues and blood ,results in increased
excretion in urine
Phe is diverted to alternate pathways resulting in excessive
production of phenylpyruvate, phenylacetate &
phenylglutamine
Clinically manifest as mental retardation, failure of growth,
seizures & tremors
T/t by maintaining normal plasma range(1-2 mg/dl) by intake
of food with low phe content
Metabolism of aromatic amino acids
19. Alkaptonuria(black urine)
Caused by defect of enzyme homogentisate oxidase
Homogentisate accumulates in tissues,blood & excreted in
urine
Homogenisate gets oxidized to quinones which produce
black/brown pigment alkapton(responsible for black urine)
Alkapton deposits in tissues,bone,organs resulting in
ochronosis
T/t by low phe content in diet
Metabolism of aromatic amino acids
21. Functions of catecholamines
Norepinephrine & epinephrine regulate carbohydrate & lipid
metabolism by stimulating the degradation of
triacylglycerol & glycogen
Increase in blood pressure
Dopamine & norepinephrine serve as neurotransmitters in
brain & autonomic nervous system
22. Parkinson’s disease
Characterised by muscular rigidity , tremors, expressionless
face, lethargy & involuntary movements
Caused due to decreased production of dopamine
Metabolism of aromatic amino acids
23. Melanin synthesis
• Albinism is an inborn error
which manifests as
generalised
hypopigmentation due to
lack of synthesis of
melanin pigment
• Most common cause of
albinism is a defect in the
enzyme tyrosinase
Metabolism of aromatic amino acids
29. Functions of serotonin
Regulates regulation of cerebral activity(excitation) as a
neurotransmitter
Results in smooth muscle contraction in bronchioles &
arterioles as a vasoconstrictor
Controls behavioural patterns, sleep, blood pressure, and
body temperature
Trp metabolism
30. Functions of melatonin
Melatonin is a hormone synthesized in the pineal gland
It also acts as a neurotransmitter
It is basically involved in circadian rhythms or diurnal
variations (24 hour cyclic process) of the body and thus plays
a significant role in sleep and wake process
Trp metabolism
31. Disorders
Hartnup’s disease : defective intestinal absorption of
tryptophan leading to pellagra like symptoms(since trp is
responsible for niacin synthesis)
Argentaffinoma/Malignant carcinoid syndrome :
uncontrolled growth of serotonin secreting cells in GIT
(almost 60% of trp is utilized for serotonin synthesis unlike
normal 1%) which manifest in the form of respiratory distress,
sweating, hypertension,etc. The estimation of 5- HIA in urine
is used in its diagnosis
Trp metabolism
35. Disorders
Cystinuria : Defective reabsorption of cysteine, ornithine,
arginine, lysine(COAL) in the renal tubules
Cystinosis : Impaired cystine utilization due to defect in the
lysosomal function
Homocystinuria : Deficiency of cystathione β synthase
which leads to elevation of homocysteine in blood(normal
<15 µ mol/l) and predisposes the individual to coronary
artery diseases(aggregation of LDL ,interference with
collagen cross-links), thrombosis, osteoporosis & very
often mental retardation
Metabolism of sulphur amino acids
38. Metabolic defects
Maple syrup urine disease/branched chain ketonuria : Urine
smells like maple syrup or burnt sugar-hence the name
Enzyme defect : defect of α-keto acid dehydrogenase blocks
conversion of keto acids to respective thioesters
Complications: impairment in transport & function of other AAs
,reduced protein biosynthesis ,competitive inhibition of
glutamate dehydrogenase
Symptoms: acidosis, lethargy, convulsions, mental retardation,
coma & finally death within one year of birth
Diagnosis & treatment: Diagnosed by enzyme analysis or
presence of branched amino & keto acids in urine. Treatment
is to feed a diet with low or no content of branched AAs along
constant monitoring of plasma levels
Metabolism of branched chain amino acids
40. Histidine , arginine & proline all three are metabolized to give the same
end product i.e., glutamate
Glutamate-besides being converted to glutamine-is involved in synthesis
of GLUCOSE, AMMONIA & certain special products
GLUTAMATE
GLUTAMINE
GABA
CARBOXY
GLUTAMATE
Metabolism of glycogenic amino acids
Purine
pyrimidine
Proteins NH3 Urea
Detoxification
Amino sugars
41. Metabolism of glycogenic amino acids
Histidine, on decarboxylation, gives the corresponding amine-Histamine
Hydrolase
43. Disorders associated with
proline & arginine
Hyperprolinemia type 1 : due to defect in the enzyme
proline oxidase(proline dehydrogenase)
Hyperargininemia : due to defect of enzyme arginase
Metabolism of glycogenic amino acids
44. Nitric oxide synthesis & functions
Functions :
• Acts as vasodilator & causes
relaxation of smooth muscles
• Regulates blood pressure
• Inhibits platelet aggregation
• Acts as a neurotransmitter
• Mediates bacterial action of
macrophages
Metabolism of glycogenic amino acids
45. Synthesis & significance of
GABA
GABA forms succinate which
enters TCA cycle
Bypass route of glutamate to
enter TCA cycle , k/as GABA
SHUNT
Major inhibitory
neurotransmitter of brain
Opens chloride channels &
increases permeability of post-
synaptic membranes
Decreased GABA levels cause
convulsions
46. One carbon metabolism
Network of integrated metabolic pathways act together to
continuously supply single carbon units for various
biochemical reactions
Single carbon units are methyl(-CH3) , hydroxymethyl (-
CH2OH), methylene(=CH2) , methenyl (-CH=), formyl (-
CH=O) , formimino (-CH=NH)
Tetrahydrofolate(THF) is a versatile coenzyme that actively
participates in one carbon metabolism
With regards to transfer of methyl groups from S-
adenosylmethionine , vitamin b12 is also involved
Protein metabolism
48. MCQs
Hopkin’s-cole test: test for indole group of tryptophan
Nitroprusside test: for sulfhydryl group of cysteine
Glutamate is the major source of ammonia in kidney
Energy values of carbohydrates(4Kcal/g), fat(9Kcal/g) &
protein(4Kcal/g)
Daily required doses of carbohydrates(40gms), fat(70gms)
&proteins(60gms)
100gms of protein excretes approximately 16.5gms of
nitrogen
Protein metabolism
49. Biochemical tests for abnormal constituents of urine:
Albumin & globulin- heat coagulation test
Blood - benzidine test
Glucose - benedict’s test
Ketone bodies - rothera’s test
Bile salts - hay’s test , patternkofer’s test
Bile pigments - fouchet’s test, gmelin’s test
Acetone, acetoacetate & β-hydroxy butyrate are known as
ketone bodies & are major fuel source of brain during
prolonged starvation
Important notes for MCQs