A common language is one of the most important features of a community. Language is a means of communication that conveys culture and traditions. It is a social phenomenon that allows people to interact and cooperate. Language is symbolic, systematic, vocal, non-instinctive, and conventional. It is acquired through social learning rather than innate instincts. A first language is acquired naturally as a child, while additional languages are learned later in life, requiring more effort. Understanding students' language backgrounds is important for effective education.

1. Introduction
Language is essentially a means of communication among the members of a society. In the
expression of culture, language is a fundamental aspect. It is the tool that conveys traditions and
values related to group identity. The purpose of this lesson is to show that a common language is
one of the most important features of a community and the ceaseless use of the same language is
the most certain proof of the historical continuity of a community of people. This function is
strongly related to the social nature of a language, whereas there are interdependency and mutual
conditionality relations between language occurrence and a society with its inherent culture.
Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behavior. In the normal transfer of
information through language, we use language to send vital social messages about who we are,
where we come from, and who we associate with. It is often shocking to realize how extensively
we may judge a person's background, character, and intentions based simply upon the person's
language, dialect, or, in some instances, even the choice of a single word.
Meaning of Language
Language is a living and dynamic phenomenon, and people have always found ways of
expressing their thoughts, feelings even in the most tightly controlled and oppressive societies. In
fact language is continuously creating new words in order to define a new concept. In
discussions of language and education, language is usually defined as a shared set of verbal
codes, such as Tamil, Arabic, Hindi, etc. But language can also be defined as a generic,
communicative phenomenon, especially in descriptions of instruction. Teachers and students use
spoken and written language to communicate with each other–to present tasks, engage in
learning processes, present academic content, assess learning, display knowledge and skill, and
build classroom life. In addition, much of what students learn is language. They learn to read and
write (academic written language), and they learn the discourse of academic disciplines
(sometimes called academic languages and literacy’s). Both definitions of language are
important to understanding the relationship between language and education.
Learning Language
In their early years, children are learning both spoken and written language. They are
developing use of complex grammatical structures and vocabulary; communicative competence
comprehension of spoken and written language; and ways to express themselves.
Learning through Language
Learning in classrooms is primarily accomplished through language. Teachers lecture, ask
questions, initiate discussions, and assign reading and writing tasks. Students engage in academic
tasks through reading, writing, exploring the Internet, giving verbal answers to teacher questions,
listening to teacher lectures and student presentations, participating in whole-class and
instructional peer group discussions, memorizing written text and vocabulary, and so on.
Learning about Language

2. Perhaps the most obvious classroom practice for learning about language is through the study of
grammar and spelling. As linguists point out, the grammar taught in school is a prescriptive
grammar and is not a descriptive grammar. For those students who use Standard English,
prescriptive grammar is often very close to the language they speak. But for students who speak
a variation of English other than Standard English the teaching and learning of prescriptive
grammar does not necessarily related to the language they speak, and thus they are learning
about a language different from the language they speak.
Definition of Language
Language is an exclusively human method for communicating thoughts, feelings, and wishes; it
is not rooted in instinct, and it employs a system of freely structured symbols (Spair). A language
is a system of arbitrary sound symbols by means of which a social group interacts (Bloch and
Trager). Language is the institution used by human beings for communication and interaction by
means of conventional and voluntary oral-auditory symbols (Hall). One definition sees language
primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behavior: to learn
languages and to produce and understand utterances. This definition stresses the universality of
language to all humans, and it emphasizes the biological basis for the human capacity for
language as a unique development of the human brain. Another definition sees language as a
formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning.
This definition stresses that human languages can be described as closed structural systems
consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings.
Concept of Language
‘Language is a mirror of mind in a deep significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence,
created anew in each individuals by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or
consciousness’. Language is, today, an inseparable part of human society. Human civilization
has been possible only through language. It is through language only that humanity has come out
of the stone age and has developed science, art and technology in a big way. Language is a
means of communication, it is arbitrary, it is a system of systems. We know that speech is
primary while writing is secondary. Language is human so it differs from animal communication
in several ways. Language can have scores of characteristics but the following are the most
important ones: language is arbitrary, productive, creative, systematic, vocalic, social, non-
instinctive and conventional.
These characteristics of language set human language apart from animal communication. Some
of these features may be part of animal communication; yet they do not form part of it in total.
Language is Arbitrary: Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no inherent relation
between the words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them. There is no
reason why a female adult human being be called a woman in English, aurat in Urdu, Zen in
Persian and Femine in French. The choice of a word selected to mean a particular thing or idea is
purely arbitrary but once a word is selected for a particular referent, it comes to stay as such. It
may be noted that had language not been arbitrary, there would have been only one language in
the world. Language is Social: Language is a set of conventional communicative signals used by

3. humans for communication in a community. Language in this sense is a possession of a social
group, comprising an indispensable set of rules which permits its members to relate to each
other, to interact with each other, to co-operate with each other; it is a social institution.
Language exists in society; it is a means of nourishing and developing culture and establishing
human relations. Language is Symbolic: Language consists of various sound symbols and their
graph logical counterparts that are employed to denote some objects, occurrences or meaning.
These symbols are arbitrarily chosen and conventionally accepted and employed. Words in a
language are not mere signs or figures, but symbols of meaning. The intelligibility of a language
depends on a correct interpretation of these symbols. Language is Systematic: Although
language is symbolic, yet its symbols are arranged in a particular system. All languages have
their system of arrangements. Every language is a system of systems. All languages have
phonological and grammatical systems, and within a system there are several sub-systems. For
example, within the grammatical system we have morphological and syntactic systems, and
within these two sub-systems we have systems such as those of plural, of mood, of aspect, of
tense, etc. Language is Vocal: Language is primarily made up of vocal sounds only produced by
a physiological articulatory mechanism in the human body. In the beginning, it appeared as vocal
sounds only. Writing came much later, as an intelligent attempt to represent vocal sounds.
Language is Non-instinctive, Conventional: No language was created in a day out of a mutually
agreed upon formula by a group of humans. Language is the outcome of evolution and
convention. Each generation transmits this convention on to the next. Like all human institutions
languages also change and die, grow and expand. Every language then is a convention in a
community. It is non-instinctive because it is acquired by human beings. Nobody gets a language
in heritage; he acquires it because he an innate ability. Language is Productive and Creative:
Language has creativity and productivity. The structural elements of human language can be
combined to produce new utterances, which neither the speaker nor his hearers may ever have
made or heard before any, listener, yet which both sides understand without difficulty. Language
changes according to the needs of society.
Functions of Language
Language functions refer to the purposes in which we use language to communicate. We use
language for a variety of formal and informal purposes, and specific grammatical structures and
vocabulary are often used with each language function. Some examples of language functions
include:  Language is the primary vehicle of communication  Language reflects both the
personality of the individual and the culture of the society.  Languages make possible the
growth and transmission of culture, and the continuity of societies, and the effective functioning
and control of social group.
Understanding of Home Language and School language
First Language / Home Language First language is otherwise called as in many names such as
mother language, arterial language, home language, native language, vernacular language,
indigenous, or autochthonous language In most cases, the term first language refers to the
language that a person acquires in early childhood because it is spoken in the family and/or it is

4. the language of the region where the child lives. Also known as a mother tongue, native
language, or arterial language. A person who has more than one native language is regarded as
bilingual or multilingual. Contemporary linguists and educators commonly use the term L1 to
refer to a first or native language, and the term L2 to refer to a second language or a foreign
language that is being studied.
Process of L1 Acquisition
The first language acquisition usually consist of following stages:
 Cooing (3 – 6 months)- use phonemes from every language
 Babbling (6- 8 months)- selectively use phonemes from their native language, talking
incoherently and continuous low murmuring sound.
 Holophrastic stage or one word stage (9 - 18 months) – Single open class words or word stems.
 Two word stage (18 – 24 months) mini-sentences with semantic relations.
 Telegraphic speech (24- 30 months) Early multiword sentence structures of lexical rather than
functional or grammatical morphemes.
 Fluency (30 + months) - almost normal developed speech and grammatical or functional
structures emerge.
Characteristics of first language acquisition
1) It is an instinct. This is true in the technical sense, i.e. it is triggered by birth and takes its own
course, though of course linguistic input from the environment is needed for the child to acquire
a specific language. As an instinct, language acquisition can be compared to the acquisition of
binocular vision or binaural hearing. 2) It is very rapid. The amount of time required to acquire
one's native language is quite short, very short compared to that needed to learn a second
language successfully later on in life. 3) It is very complete. The quality of first language
acquisition is far better than that of a second language. One does not forget one's native
language. 4) It does not require instruction. Despite the fact that many non-linguists think that
mothers are important for children to learn their native language, instructions by parents or care-
takers are unnecessary, despite the psychological benefits of attention to the child.
Second Language / School Language
A person's second language or L2, is a language that is not the native language of the speaker,
but that is used in the locale of that person. In contrast, a foreign language is a language that is
learned in an area where that language is not generally spoken. Some languages, often called
auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or linguas franca. More informally, a
second language can be said to be any language learned in addition to one's native language,
especially in context of, learning a new foreign language. Second language refers to any
language learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is named second-
language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or subsequent

5. languages. Second-language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does not refer to practices
in language teaching, although teaching can affect acquisition.
Process of L2 Acquisition
Researchers define language acquisition into two categories: first-language acquisition and
second-language acquisition. First-language acquisition is a universal process regardless of home
language. Babies listen to the sounds around them, begin to imitate them, and eventually start
producing words. Second-language acquisition assumes knowledge in a first language and
encompasses the process an individual goes through as he or she learns the elements of a new
language, such as vocabulary, phonological components, grammatical structures, and writing
systems. Haynes divided the process of second-language acquisition into five stages:
preproduction, early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, and advanced fluency.
Pre-production
This is also called "the silent period," when the student takes in the new language but does not
speak it. This period often lasts six weeks or longer, depending on the individual.
Early production
The individual begins to speak using short words and sentences, but the emphasis is still on
listening and absorbing the new language. There will be many errors in the early production
stage.
Speech Emergent
Speech becomes more frequent, words and sentences are longer, but the individual still relies
heavily on context clues and familiar topics. Vocabulary continues to increase and errors begin
to decrease, especially in common or repeated interactions.
Beginning Fluency
Speech is fairly fluent in social situations with minimal errors. New contexts and academic
language are challenging and the individual will struggle to express themselves due to gaps in
vocabulary and appropriate phrases.
Intermediate Fluency
Communicating in the second language is fluent, especially in social language situations. The
individual is able to speak almost fluently in new situations or in academic areas, but there will
be gaps in vocabulary knowledge and some unknown expressions. There are very few errors, and
the individual is able to demonstrate higher order thinking skills in the second language such as
offering an opinion or analyzing a problem.
Advanced Fluency
The individual communicates fluently in all contexts and can maneuver successfully in new
contexts and when exposed to new academic information. At this stage, the individual may still

6. have an accent and use idiomatic expressions incorrectly at times, but the individual is
essentially fluent and comfortable communicating in the second language.
Understanding the language background of the learner
Background knowledge of students
Genishi and Dyson (2009) highlight that 21st-century early childhood classrooms are rooted in
cultural, linguistic, and educational diversity so that teachers’ pedagogies no longer connect rigid
traditional curricula with “one-size-fit-all” activities but connect with flexible emerging curricula
to foreground children’s “normalcy of diversity”. In particular, second language classroom
teachers should be able to recognize what students they have faced and what problems the
students have met in second language classrooms. In addition, to understand language diversity
in second language classrooms, relative research indicates the significance of the background
knowledge of linguistics regarding the phonology, morphology, and syntax. First, the phonology
knowledge is related to how people produce a language through understanding phonology and
phonemes. Phonology refers to “the study of speech sounds;” while, phonemes refers to “the
meaningful sounds of a language” Second, the morphology knowledge explores how words are
formed, particularly showing information about morphemes that refer to smaller parts of a word.
Third, the syntax knowledge presents how sentences are formed through probing into the
“syntactic structure” which is called “syntax”. In a word, teachers should have knowledge of
linguistics so that they can make themselves more aware of linguistic differences that their
students bring to the classroom, thus designing an effective approach to help their students for
learning.
How Children Learn Language
Language development is a process starting early in human life. Infants start without language,
yet by 10 months, babies can distinguish speech sounds and engage in babbling. It is thought to
proceed by ordinary processes of learning in which children acquire the forms, meanings and
uses of words and utterances from the linguistic input. The method in which we develop
language skills is universal; however, the major debate is how the rules of syntax are acquired.
There are two major approaches to syntactic development, an empiricist account by which
children learn all syntactic rules from the linguistic input, and a nativist approach by which some
principles of syntax are innate and are transmitted through the human genome.
Noam Chomsky
The nativist theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky, argues that language is a unique human
accomplishment. Chomsky says that all children have what is called an innate language
acquisition device (LAD). Theoretically, the LAD is an area of the brain that has a set of
universal syntactic rules for all languages. This device provides children with the ability to
construct novel sentences using learned vocabulary. Chomsky's claim is based upon the view
that what children hear—their linguistic input—is insufficient to explain how they come to learn
language. He argues that linguistic input from the environment is limited and full of errors.
Therefore, nativists assume that it is impossible for children to learn linguistic information solely

7. from their environment. However, because children possess this LAD, they are in fact, able to
learn language despite incomplete information from their environment. This view has dominated
linguistic theory for over fifty years and remains highly influential, as witnessed by the number
of articles in journals and books.
B.F. Skinner
Skinner argued that children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement principles by
associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are positively reinforced when the child
realizes the communicative value of words and phrases. For example, when the child says ‘milk’
and the mother will smile and give her some as a result, the child will find this outcome
rewarding, enhancing the child's language development (Ambridge & Lieven, 2011).
Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s
Other relevant theories about language development include Piaget's theory of cognitive
development, which considers the development of language as a continuation of general
cognitive development and Vygotsky's social theories that attribute the development of language
to an individual's social interactions and growth.
Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that as children develop language, they actively build a
symbol system, which helps them to understand the world. They differed in the way in which
they viewed how language and thought interact with one another. Piaget believed that cognitive
development led to the growth of language whereas Vygotsky viewed language as developing
thought. A child's external speech is the first step in the development of thinking. Vygotsky's
theory stresses the importance of communication with others as a major factor in the
development of a child's language, which stimulates the development of thought. Vygotsky's
theory views the important effect that an adult has on the development of language.
Learning vs Acquisition
The two words Learning and Acquisition can be better explained in learning a language. The
inborn capacity to learn languages is a human characteristic that distinguishes them from other
primates. For us, communication is not merely the ability to make others understand our
intentions and feelings by using signals or sounds in an arbitrary method, but rather it is the
ability to combine various sounds to produce meaningful words and sentences. Linguists,
however, make differences between the way we acquire and the manner in which we learn
languages. Mostly it is the mother tongue that is acquired while second languages are learnt.
What is the difference between the two methods and why do linguists prefer to make students
acquire rather than try and learn languages? Let us find out.
Acquisition
The acquisition method of acquiring a language is one by which every child learns his mother
tongue. Here, he is not taught grammar the manner he is given lessons when he ultimately goes to
school. However, it is easy to see that, without any instructions, children learn the native language

8. and do not make grammatical mistakes during conversations. They learn the language through a
subconscious process where they know nothing about rules of grammar but know intuitively what
is right and wrong or learn through a trial and error method. Constant communication is what
makes acquiring the lessons of the mother tongue easier for kids.
Children learn the language as communication is a must for them to survive. They are helped in
this endeavor a great deal by the innate capacity of human beings to acquire a language. Though
parents never explain the concepts of grammar, the child learns and masters them on his own with
the help of exposure to communication in the language. The basic tool needed for language
acquisition is a source of communication that is natural.
Learning
Learning of a language is the formal teaching methodology that can be seen in the form of
instructions explaining the rules of the language. Here, the emphasis is on the form of language
rather than text and the teachers are seen busy explaining grammar rules to students. Students are
happy that they are getting a command of the grammar, and they can even take grammar test in
the language they are learning. However, it is seen that knowing grammar rules is not guarantee
of a good command over spoken language though the student might qualify language tests that are
standardized. Sadly, most of the adult language learning is based upon this method of teaching that
relies on form rather than text, and places undue importance on the rules of grammar.
What is the difference between Learning and Acquisition?
• Acquisition of a language requires meaningful communication in the language which is also
called natural communication.
• Learning of a language is based upon less communication and more explanation of grammar
rules.
• During acquisition, a child is not aware of grammar rules and he intuitively learns what is right
or wrong as there is constant meaningful communication.
• Acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious and deliberate.
• In acquisition, learner focuses more on text and less on form while he focuses on form alone in
the learning process of a language.
• Mother tongue is mostly acquired while second language is mostly learnt.
Language and Culture

9. A language can be defined as a system of signs (verbal or otherwise) intended for
communication. It is a system since its constituent components relate to each other in an intricate
and yet organized fashion. Again, it is intended for communication, for it can be safely assumed
that we speak to pass on information to others. But communication is not the only function of
language. In fact, language can be used for dreaming, internal monologue, soliloquy, poetry, etc.
For the sake of this discussion, we take the position that, essentially, language plays a
communicative role. Language as one element of culture has a very important role in human life.
Language allows a person communicating with others in meeting their needs. Thus, it can be said
is the main function of language as a communication tool. This does not mean that the language
has only one function. Another function is as a tool to express self-expression, a tool to make
integration and social adaptation, as well as a tool to hold social control. Based on these
functions, it is inferred that "Language is a means of communication between members of the
public symbol of the sound produced by means of said human". Further it is mentioned that
"Language is a symbol of the sound produced by means of said human, and the system has
means that are arbitrary; used by men in her life as a means of communication between each
other to form, express, and communicate thoughts and feelings.
Language as social practice
An understanding of language as ‘open, dynamic, energetic, constantly evolving and personal’
encompasses the rich complexities of communication. This expanded view of language also
makes educational experience more engaging for students. Language is not a thing to be studied
but a way of seeing, understanding and communicating about the world and each language user
uses his or her language(s) differently to do this. People use language for purposeful
communication and learning a new language involves learning how to use words, rules and
knowledge about language and its use in order to communicate with speakers of the language.
Language and politics
What politics means is an open question, but there is no doubt that politics is meaningful. Politics
and language are thus inseparable, and our faculty examine their relation in various and
complementary ways. We study how language constructs our political and legal reality, as well
as how it occasionally disrupts it. We study the use of framing in political communication, as
well the politics of framing. We study the role of protests in the Middle East, as well as the
impact of new media for the American democratic process. We bring insights from ordinary
language philosophy to the project of an empirical social science, and we read classics of social
science for new insights in the philosophy of language. We are open to students with diverse
methodologies, backgrounds and interests, and are a generally likable bunch.
Language and identity
Although individuals play no role in shaping their systems, they can use them as they wish in their
expression of personal meaning since the more traditional view considers individuals to be agents
of free will, and thus, autonomous decision-makers. Moreover, since this view considers all
individual action to be driven by internally motivated states, individual language use is seen as
involving a high degree of unpredictability and creativity in both form and message as individuals

10. strive to make personal connections to their surrounding contexts. As for the notion of identity, a
‘linguistics applied’ perspective views it as a set of essential characteristics unique to individuals,
independent of language, and unchanging across contexts.
Language users can display their identities, but they cannot affect them in any way. Language use
and identity are conceptualised rather differently in a sociocultural perspective on human action.
Here, identity is not seen as singular, fixed, and intrinsic to the individual. Rather, it is viewed as
socially constituted, a reflexive, dynamic product of the social, historical and political contexts of
an individual’s lived experiences.
This view has helped to set innovative directions for research in applied linguistics. The purpose
of this chapter is to lay out some of the more significant assumptions embodied in contemporary
understandings of identity and its connection to culture and language use. Included is a discussion
of some of the routes current research on language, culture and identity is taking.
When we use language, we do so as individuals with social histories. Our histories are defined in
part by our membership in a range of social groups into which we are born such as gender, social
class, religion and race. For example, we are born as female or male and into a distinct income
level that defines us as poor, middle class or well-to-do.
Likewise, we may be born as Christians, Jews, Muslims or with some other religious affiliation,
and thus take on individual identities ascribed to us by our particular religious association. Even
the geographical region in which we are born provides us with a particular group membership and
upon our birth we assume specific identities such as, for example, Italian, Chinese, Canadian, or
South African, and so on. Within national boundaries, we are defined by membership in regional
groups, and we take on identities such as, for example, northerners or southerners.
Even though we each have multiple, intersecting social identities, it is not the case that all of our
identities are always relevant. As with the meanings of our linguistic resources, their relevance is
dynamic and responsive to contextual conditions.
In other words, while we approach our communicative encounters as constellations of various
identities, the particular identity or set of identities that becomes significant depends on the activity
itself, our goals, and the identities of the other participants. Let us assume, for example, that we
are travelling abroad as tourists. In our interactions with others from different geographical regions
it is likely that our national identity will be more relevant than, say, our gender or social class.
Thus, we are likely to interact with each other as, for example, Americans, Spaniards, Australians
or Italians.
Language and power
One obvious feature of how language operates in social interactions is its relationship with
power, both influential and instrumental. Neither rule nor law, neither discipline nor hierarchy
sanctions influential power. It inclines us or makes us want to behave in certain ways or adopt
opinions or attitudes, without obvious force. It operates in such social phenomena as
advertising, culture and the media. (Strictly, we are not coerced into buying what the advertiser
shows us, nor will we suffer any penalty for our "sales resistance".) Instrumental power is

11. explicit power of the sort imposed by the state, by its laws and conventions or by the
organizations for which we work. It operates in business, education and various kinds of
management. (In many, but not all cases, if we resist instrumental power, we will be subject to
some penalty or in trouble.)
In looking at how power is exercised through language, you should be able to refer
to real examples you have found, and explain these texts. But you should also have a theoretical
approach that will enable you to interpret language data you are presented with in an exam.
Among other things, you should look at pragmatics and speech act theory, lexis and
semantics (forms and meanings), forms that include or exclude (insiders or
outsiders), structures (at phrase, clause and discourse level), forms of address, phatic tokens,
as well as structural features of speech, which may be used to exercise or establish power. And
in some contexts, you will need to be able to show how rhetorical devices are used to influence
an audience
Language and Gender
Language is the most important communication tool for human beings. It not only reflects the
reality of the society, but also has various functions to strengthen and maintain social existence.
Given such a view, language does mirror the gendered perspectives and can also impact and
contribute to changing people's perception of gender over time. Thus, for a long time feminists and
sociolinguists have shown interest in describing the differences in language use between women
and men, and studies of the cultural roles ascribed to gender. However, interest in language usage
differences between the two sexes has a very long tradition in attempting to explain the distinction
between language and gender and how language supports, enforces, and maintains attitudes about
gender in general and women in particular.
Is language sexist? Society’s distinction between men and women is reflected in their language. It
is realized that there is a specific “language” that is used by men and women. If a male tends to
speak the “language” used by women, he is considered to be crossing the boundary and is
orientated by the opposite sex. That is the reason why it appears a statement such as "I would
describe her as handsome rather than beautiful" would be considered crossing the boundary.
Because, in the English language handsome is used only to describe males and beautiful is used
only to describe females. For example, in Vietnamese the words such as willowy as ‘thuot tha’
and graceful as ‘duyen dang’ are only used to describe the beauty of women in their youth.
However, these words have a negative rhetorical nuance when used to describe men (Lakoff, 1975;
Nguyen, 1999; Spender, 1985).
The following issues were ascribed by Holmes (1998) that
 women and men develop different language use patterns,
 tend to focus on the affective functions of an interaction more often than men,
 tend to use linguistic devices that stress solidarity more often than men,
 tend to interact in ways that will maintain and increase solidarity, while (especially in formal
contexts) men tend to interact in ways that will maintain and increase their power and status,
and,
 are stylistically more flexible than men.

12. MULTILINGUALISM
In the present world there are around 6000 languages grouped under various language families
spoken in 200 states. The existence of all these languages side by side resulted in
multilingualism. Knowing two or more than two languages became the need for
communication among speech communities as well as individuals.
Multilingualism‟ can be defined as an occurrence regarding an individual speaker who uses
two or more languages, a community of speakers where two or more languages are used, or
between speakers of two languages. Multilingualism basically arises due to the need to
communicate across speech communities. Multilingualism is not a rare but a normal necessity
across the world due to globalization and wider cultural communication. Also it is not a recent
phenomenon; it was prevalent in the ancient time also. This need further resulted in lingua
francas, pidgins and phenomenon like code switching. These are the products of
multilingualism. Multilingualism has various advantages:
a) Accessibility to knowledge of other cultures;
b) Communication between different linguistic and cultural groups become easier;
c) Increases job opportunities;
d) High cognitive development of a child;
e) A broader world view, etc.
Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a
community of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's
population. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of
globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the ease of access to information facilitated by
the Internet, individuals' exposure to multiple languages is becoming increasingly frequent,
thereby promoting a need to acquire additional languages. In recent years, linguistic research
has focused attention on the use of widely known world languages such as English as lingua
franca, or the shared common language of professional and commercial communities. In lingua
franca situations, most speakers of the common language are functionally multilingual.
INDIAN MULTLINGUALISM
Modern India, as per the 1961 count, has more than 1652 mother tongues, genetically belonging
to five different language families. Apart from them 527 mother tongues were considered
unclassifiable at that time.
The 1991 Census had 10,400 raw returns and they were rationalized into 1576 mother tongues.
They are further rationalized into 216 mother tongues, and grouped under 114 languages: Austro-
Asiatic (14 languages, with a total population of 1.13%), Dravidian (17 languages, with a total
population of 22.53%), Indo-European (Indo-Aryan, 19 languages, with a total population of
75.28%, and Germanic, 1 language, with a total population of 0.02%), Semito-Harmitic (1
language, with a total population of 0.01%), and Tibeto-Burman (62 languages with a total
population of 0.97%).

13. It may be noted that mother tongues having a population of less than 10000 on all India basis or
not possible to identify on the basis of available linguistic information have gone under 'others'.
So, good number of "languages" recorded in the Indian Census could not be classified as to their
genetic relation, and so are treated as Unclassified Languages.
The Indo-Aryan languages are spoken by the maximum number of speakers, followed in the
descending order by the Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic, and Sino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) languages.
Eighteen Indian languages, namely, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Kannada,
Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu,
and Urdu are spoken by 96.29% of the population of the country and the remaining 3.71% of the
population speak rest of the languages.
Recommendations for multilingual
To enable teachers and other professionals, who are closely working with children, to practise
multilingual approach in different classrooms, some recommendations are reiterated below:
• Pre-service and in-service programmes for teachers must sensitise them to the nature, structure,
and functions of language, process of language acquisition in children, language change, emergent
and early literacy, and equip them with strategies that can help build on the resources of a
multilingual classroom.
• Research in the areas of language learning and language-teaching methods must be supported
and promoted by higher learning institutions in the country. (National Focus Group on Teaching
of Indian Languages, 2005)
• For languages which are oral in nature, they must be written down in a script form so that the
children of those communities have access to their culture and learn in their own language till they
become proficient in state/regional language.
• Fellowships must be encouraged to document oral cultures and to explore possibilities to invent
or use the available script to document history, culture and folklore.
• Publishers must be encouraged and supported to publish print material in lesser known/ minority/
regional/ tribal languages.
Language Provisions in the Constitution of the Indian Union
Article 29 Protection of interests of minorities
(1) Any section of the citizens residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct
language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the same.

14. (2) No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution maintained by the State
or receiving aid out of State funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of
them.
Article 30 Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions
(1) All minorities, whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish and
administer educational institutions of their choice.
(1A) In making any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of an educational
institution established and administered by a minority, referred to in clause (1), the State shall
ensure that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for the acquisition of such property
is such as would not restrict or abrogate the right guaranteed under that clause.
(2) The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any
educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based
on religion or language.
Article 120 Language to be used in Parliament
(1) Notwithstanding anything in Part XVII, but subject to the provisions of article 348 business in
Parliament shall be transacted in Hindi or in English:
Provided that the Chairman of the Council of States or Speaker of the House of the People, or
person acting as such, as the case may be, may permit any member who cannot adequately express
himself in Hindi or in English to address the House in his mother-tongue.
(2) Unless Parliament by law otherwise provides, this article shall, after the expiration of a period
of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, have effect as if the words "or in
English" were omitted therefrom.
Article 343 Official language of the Union
(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals
to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement
of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of
the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement:
Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi
language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition
to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.
(3) Notwithstanding anything in this article, Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the
said period of fifteen years, of
(a) the English language, or
(b) the Devanagari form of numerals, for such purposes as may be specified in the law.

15. Article 344 Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language
(1) The President shall, at the expiration of five years from the commencement of this Constitution
and thereafter at the expiration of ten years from such commencement, by order constitute a
Commission which shall consist of a Chairman and such other members representing the different
languages specified in the Eighth Schedule as the President may appoint, and the order shall define
the procedure to be followed by the Commission.
(2) It shall be the duty of the Commission to make recommendations to the President as to
(a) the progressive use of the Hindi language for the official purposes of the Union;
(b) restrictions on the use of the English language for all or any of the official purposes of the
Union;
(c) the language to be used for all or any of the purposes mentioned in article 348;
(d) the form of numerals to be used for any one or more specified purposes of the Union;
(e) any other matter referred to the Commission by the President as regards the official language
of the Union and the language for communication between the Union and a State or between one
State and another and their use.
(3) In making their recommendations under clause (2), the Commission shall have due regard to
the industrial, cultural and scientific advancement of India, and the just claims and the interests of
persons belonging to the non-Hindi speaking areas in regard to the public services.
(4) There shall be constituted a Committee consisting of thirty members, of whom twenty shall be
members of the House of the People and ten shall be members of the Council of States to be elected
respectively by the members of the House of the People and the members of the Council of States
in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable
vote.
(5) It shall be the duty of the Committee to examine the recommendations of the Commission
constituted under clause (1) and to report to the President their opinion thereon.
(6) Notwithstanding anything in article 343, the President may, after consideration of the report
referred to in clause (5), issue directions in accordance with the whole or any part of that report.
Article 345 Official language or languages of a State
Subject to the provisions of articles 346 and 347, the Legislature of a State may by law adopt any
one or more of the languages in use in the State or Hindi as the Language or Languages to be used
for all or any of the official purposes of that State;
Provided that, until the Legislature of the State otherwise provides by law, the English language
shall continue to be used for those official purposes within the State for which it was being used
immediately before the commencement of this Constitution.

16. Article 346 Official language for communication between one State and another or between
a State and the Union
The language for the time being authorised for use in the Union for official purposes shall be the
official language for communication between one State and another State and between a State and
the Union:
Provided that if two or more States agree that the Hindi language should be the official language
for communication between such States, that language may be used for such communication.
Article 347 Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a
State
On a demand being made in that behalf the President may, if he is satisfied that a substantial
proportion of the population of a State desire the use of any language spoken by them to be
recognised by that state, direct that such language shall also be officially recognised throughout
that State or any part thereof for such purpose as he may specify.
Chapter III Language of the Supreme Court, High Courts, etc.
Article 348 Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts,
Bills, etc.
(1) Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing provisions of this Part, until Parliament by law
otherwise provides
(a) all proceedings in the Supreme Court and in every High Court,
(b) the authoritative texts
(i) of all Bills to be introduced or amendments thereto to be moved in either House of Parliament
or in the House or either House of the Legislature of a State.
(ii) of all Acts passed by Parliament or the Legislature of a State and of all Ordinances promulgated
by the President or the Governor of a State, and
(iii) of all orders, rules, regulations and by-laws issued under this Constitution or under any law
made by Parliament or the Legislature of a State, shall be in the English language.
(2) Notwithstanding anything in sub-clause (a) of clause (1), the Governor of a State may, with the
previous consent of the President, authorise the use of the Hindi language, or any other language
used for any official purposes of the State, in proceedings in the High Court having its principal
seat in that State:
Provided that nothing in this clause shall apply to any judgment, decree or order passed or made
by such High Court.
(3) Notwithstanding anything in sub-clause (b) of clause (1), where the Legislature of a State has
prescribed any language other than the English language for use in Bills introduced in, or Acts
passed by, the Legislature of the State or in Ordinances promulgated by the Governor of the State

17. or in any order, rule, regulation or by-law referred to in paragraph (iii) of that sub-clause, a
translation of the same in the English language published under the authority of the Governor of
the State in the Official Gazette of that State shall be deemed to be the authoritative text thereof in
the English language under this article.
Article 349 Special procedure for enactment of certain laws relating to language
During the period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, no Bill or
amendment making provision for the language to be used for any of the purposes mentioned in
clause (1) of article 348 shall be introduced or moved in either House of Parliament without the
previous sanction of the President, and the President shall not give his sanction to the introduction
of any such Bill or the moving of any such amendment except after he has taken into consideration
the recommendations of the Commission constituted under clause (1) of article 344 and the report
of the Committee constituted under clause (4) of that article.
Chapter IV Special Directives
Article 350 Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances
Every person shall be entitled to submit a representation for the redress of any grievance to any
officer or authority of the Union or a State in any of the languages used in the Union or in the
State, as the case may be.
Article 350A Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage
It shall be the endeavour of every State and of every local authority within the State to provide
adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children
belonging to linguistic minority groups and the President may issue such directions to any State as
he considers necessary or proper for securing the provision of such facilities.
Article 350B Special Officer for linguistic minorities
(1) There shall be a Special Officer for linguistic minorities to be appointed by the President.
(2) It shall be the duty of the Special Officer to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards
provided for linguistic minorities under this Constitution and report to the President upon those
matters at such intervals as the President may direct, and the President shall cause all such reports
to be laid before each House of Parliament, and sent to the Government of the States concerned.
Article 351 Directive for development of the Hindi language
It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that
it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and
to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms style and
expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth
Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on
Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

18. Language as a subject
Language as a subject is usually described in terms of the different domains of writing, reading,
speaking and listening and knowledge about language. In practice, these elements are often
integrated, as when a text for reading is used as the basis for oral discussion which then becomes
a stimulus for a writing task. When describing the language as subject curriculum, the different
elements are usually addressed separately; each one raises a variety of issues.
For example, the ability to write in a variety of different contexts and for different purposes does
not come automatically just from being acquainted with texts through reading. There is a need for
systematic approaches to the teaching of writing both at the initial stages of schooling and in later
years. Language development in the early years, particularly pre-school, with emphasis on
emerging reading and writing is important in providing adequate foundation for the future.
Teaching programmes need to ensure progression and a broadening of scope throughout the years
of school.
There has been an increasing awareness of the broad contexts of reading within life (in school and
beyond) and it has become an aim of formal schooling to cover a wide range of texts. Thus, the
domain of reading needs to cover an introduction to the use and understanding of various forms of
texts, including expository and literary texts, the media and a wide range of genres. Reading can
be described as a cognitive constructive process. It is not enough to describe making meaning
when reading a text simply as text reception but it is the result of a complex text-reader-interaction.
Good readers benefit from meta-cognition which allows them to monitor their understanding.
Speaking, interacting and listening competences traditionally have little specific attention in the
language as subject curriculum, although the importance of oral activity is now more widely
acknowledged. All students need to develop their oral language. Being able to speak and
understand a language on a basic level or in a way that indicates fluency does not mean that the
student has sufficient competence to master oral genres in a broad sense. The variety of mother
tongue backgrounds in many languages as subject classrooms calls for more systematic approaches
to enhance proficiency of speech for various purposes and understanding of oral language.
Knowledge about language is often less explicitly distinguished in the language as subject
curriculum than speaking and listening, reading and writing, particularly where a language-in-use-
approach is more dominant than a focus on language as a system. Aspects of language awareness
and reflection are often integrated into working with texts. However, in planning the language as
subject curriculum there needs to be consideration of what aspects of knowledge about language
and reflection on language need to be included.
Teaching approaches in language as subject: genres and tasks
The main difficulty in this field is to find an appropriate balance between competences, values and
attitudes, on the one hand, and contents, on the other, bearing in mind that the process of teaching
and learning is to be a formative one. Teachers have to deal with students’ linguistic knowledge to
develop their linguistic competences, to develop and use their textual knowledge for strengthening

19. reading competence and to stimulate interest in cultural knowledge in order to develop students’
participation in culture.
They may use analytic and holistic approaches, text oriented, process-oriented or learner-oriented
strategies, formative and summative assessment. In practical terms different broad approaches to
planning of the language as subject curriculum tend to be used, based, for example, on themes,
specific texts or language skills.
The concept of ‘genre’ has also emerged as a key consideration when thinking about approaches
to language as subject. At one level the term ‘genre’ seems straight-forward, referring to ‘types’
or ‘kinds’ of text or utterances; its appeal, therefore, as an organizing principle for the curriculum
is evident. Literature used to be conceived in terms of the three traditional genres: poetry, prose,
drama which are sub-divided further (tragedy, comedy etc.). The teaching of writing is often
conceived in terms of different genres (reports, letters, and poems) or as writing for different
purposes (to inform, persuade, and entertain). However, the way genres are conceptualized should
not be static.
Genre categories overlap and to assume that genres can be taught narrowly and explicitly as
discrete entities in a linear fashion may lead to oversimplification. The coherence and specificity
of genres may vary. For example, within the media there is a difference between simply reporting
the news and commenting on the news. Within an approach which stresses the communicative
function of language the notion of ‘discourse genre’ is enlightening. This moves beyond mere text
types and takes into account various situations of oral and written language use where structural
patterns arise. Because subjects can be conceived in terms of acquisition of ‘genre competence’,
the concept is central to forging links between language as a subject and language in other subjects.
Language and Dialect
A language can be spoken, written and/or signed, like the American Sign Language. There are
some languages that can be whistled. A typical language will have words, phrases, idioms and a
grammar structure. A dialect is a variation in the language itself. It is derived from a single
language.
Languages are one of the intricate forms of communication out there. It allows us to converse with
each other and share thoughts and ideas. There are thousands of languages out there; in fact some
estimates state that there are between 5,000 and 7,000 languages.
The usage of languages varies geographically, politically and culturally. An entire country may
speak the same language; two cultures residing in the same area may speak different languages
due to cultural differences; while two groups of people residing in the same country may speak
different languages due to political differences.
There are many times when two different languages have evolved from the root language. These
languages are together called a language family. An example of a language family is the Indo-
European language family, which includes Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian,
German, Sindhi, Punjabi, Marathi, French, Urdu, and Italian.

20. Two languages belonging to the same language family may no longer be similar, except very few
traces of similarity, which will probably only be visible to linguists and not the layman; this where
dialects differ from languages. Dialects are the same language that have undergone some changes
due to regional or cultural differences.
The main difference between two languages and two dialects is that the languages are very
different from each other and cannot be said to be similar. Two dialects, on the other hand, are
quite similar to each other as they have been derived from the same language. If two people who
do not speak the same language are able to have a conversation, then what they are speaking are
dialects of the same language. However, if they cannot understand each other at all, then they are
speaking two distinct languages. This is the general rule of thumb that linguists follow.
Characteristics of dialect:
1. Regional variety of a standard from
2. The utterance of dialect is unique
3. Maximum time using dialect is influenced by rural or urban socio‐cultural aspects.
4. Dialect can be varied from geographic area to area.
5. A language could have more than one dialect.
Script
A script refers to a collection of characters used to write one or more languages.
This set of alphabets is called a script. A script is officially described as a set of characters,
including both signs and/or symbols, which are used to store or transfer communication of
messages, such as thoughts or ideas, visually in a language, via reading and writing. These
characters also often include letters and numbers.
The most commonly used script is the Latin script, also called the Roman script. In fact, 70% of
the world’s population uses this script. It is an alphabet based on the letters of the classical Latin
alphabet. It is the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as
well as many languages from other parts of the world. Languages such as English, French, Spanish,
Italian, German, etc. are transcribed using this script.
Even though many of the Western and Central European languages, such as English, French,
Spanish, Italian, German, etc., use the same script, they are clearly different and individual
languages.
Place of mother tongue in curriculum
One main reason for support of the use of Mother –Tongue as a medium of instruction in lower
primary schools was also as a result of the need to preserve Indian cultural. Although Mother-
Tongue has been encouraged it has been given a lukewarm reception in the post independence
period. In some cases schools have decreed that children be taught in English even in areas where

21. Mother-Tongue should be used. There is a wonderful proverb in Swedish “Kart barn har manga
namn”. The literal translation being “A beloved child has many names”, which is very true for
what is generally called the “mother-tongue”.
UNESCO has encouraged mother-tongue instruction in primary education since 1953 and
UNESCO highlights the advantages of mother- tongue education right from start. Children are
more likely to enrol and succeed in school. Parents are more likely to communicate with teachers
and participate in their children’s learning. Girls and rural children with less exposure to a
dominant language stay in school longer and repeat grades less often. Some educators argue that
only those countries where the student’s first language is the language of instruction are likely to
achieve the goals of Education for all. Preserving Mother-Tongues Many linguistic groups are
becoming vocal about the need to ensure that the youngest members of their communities keep
their linguistic heritage. Some governments, such as in many foreign countries have recently
established language-in-Education policies that embraces children’s first languages. A
compendium of examples produced by UNESCO (2008b) attests to growing interest in promoting
mother tongue- based education, and to the wide variety of models, tools, and resources now being
developed and piloted to promote learning programs in the mothertongue.
The Classroom Discourse
Classroom Discourse is a special type of discourse that occurs in the classroom. Special features
of classroom discourse include – unequal power relationship, turn- taking at speaking, patterns of
interaction, etc. Classroom Discourse is often different in form and function from language used
in other situations because of particular social role which learners and teachers have in the
classroom and the kind of activities they usually carried out there. Analysis of the patterns of
interaction characteristics of most classrooms has shown that, on average, teachers talk more than
two- thirds of the time, a few students contribute most of the answers, boys talk more than girls,
and those sitting in the front and centre of the class are more likely to contribute than those sitting
at the back and sides. Bracha Alpert (1991) has identified three different patterns of classroom
discourse:
1. SILENT (the teacher talks almost all the time and asks only an occasional question),
2. CONTROLLED (as in the excerpt above), and
3. ACTIVE (the teacher facilities while the students talk primarily to each other)
Recent attempts to reform teaching based on constructivist views of learning have called for
teachers to ask fewer questions and for students to learn to state and justify their beliefs and argue
constructively about reasons and evidence. One fundamental aspect of classroom discourse is that
the teacher talks most of the time.
TYPES OF CLASSROOM DISCOURSE
Neil Mercer (1996) identified three ways of talking and thinking in classrooms:

22.  Disputation talk (in which knowledge is not developed; learners dispute without seeking any
consensus or understanding).
 Cumulative talk (interlocutors make attempts to establish shared frames in which knowledge is
built, but unquestioning).
 Exploratory talk (partners engage critically but constructively with each other’ ideas; knowledge
is built through critical interrogation and reflection, in a relationship of shared power)
Learning of language, creativity, sensitivity and personality development
1. Language Learning Gives You a New Way of Seeing the World
In English we say “Goodnight” or “Sweet dreams”. In Hebrew people say ‫הלייל‬ ‫,בוט‬ which also
means “Goodnight”. In Vietnamese, people say “Chúc ngủ ngon”, which means “have a delicious
sleep”. When I think about the word “delicious” I think pineapple pizza, chocolate chip cookie
cake, and coconut ice-cream. I don’t think about going to sleep.
Looking at it another way: if you are learning English for the first time, it maybe weird to say,
“this fruit is melting in my mouth”, because it’s a bit odd if you translate it literally back to your
native language.
So depending on the language, different phrases will flex your creativity and force you to think
about how to say things in a different way.
The more you learn languages, the more creative you get in describing situations and saying things.
2. Language Learning Helps You Say the Unsayable
There are thousands of words in other languages that have no equivalent in English. Discovering
these words broadens your overall vocabulary and gives you a bigger worldview.
Along the same lines, English is a mongrel language, made up of many tongues. When you learn
another language, chances are that you’ll pick up some “English” words you never knew before.
You’ll also discover new ways of using English words. Take the German word for cell phone –
“handy”. I love it!
3. Language Learning Gives You a “Sense of Humour” Transplant
Learning a second language is a lot of fun. When you can have a good time with it, it’s even better.
Studying a new language, you will notice that you have to learn a new sense of humour that comes
along with the culture of that language.
Sometimes, jokes that work in English won’t work in French or Japanese. But sometimes cheesy
things that nobody would laugh in English work in Vietnamese. I learned this when I performed
stand up comedy in Vietnam. A lot of my non-Vietnamese speaking friends would ask me to
translate the jokes for them, but when I translated back to English, no one laughed.

23. Even I think that some of the jokes I tell in Vietnamese aren’t funny. But that’s okay. I’m forced
to stretch my creativity by finding my sense of humour not only in English but in Vietnamese as
well. You can do this too!
4. Language Learning Improves Your Body Language
When you are not sure what word to use, body language, including some hand gestures, will help
get the point across. Likewise, when you know the right word but your pronunciation is off, you
have to use your body language to make it clear what it is you are trying to say.
Some people call this game “charades”, but other people (such as myself) use this regularly when
they are learning a second language. The truth is, the more you can use your body language when
you’re learning a new language, the better.
And don’t shy away from trying to convey difficult words, as that’s the best way to put your
creativity to work. The harder the word, the more creative you are going to be with your emotions
and actions. Getting someone to understand that you can to say “call” is easy. Getting them to
guess “responsibility” isn’t so much.
5. Language Learning Makes You Better at Improve
When you learn a second language you don’t really have time to sit and translate one word at a
time. Sometimes you have to act on impulse and just go with what you know.
You’ll have to use words you know to explain a word you don’t know. “A bird that swims”
(duck/penguin). Or “really, really cold milk” (ice cream).
If you have ever had a conversation in another language, you will know exactly what I mean! (If
not, don’t worry, your day will come soon). It’s not easy. It forces you to be quick. You have to
think extra hard when you speak in a second language. It’s like playing an improv game.
6. Language Learning Improves Your Memory
When you learn a new language you have to learn a lot of vocabulary, new grammar structures,
idioms, and much more besides.
Doing this this, you have to learn memorisation tactics. These could be flashcards, watching
movies, using recall methods, or building a memory palace.
Whatever memorisation tactic you use, it will boost helps your creativity. Plus, research shows
that memorisation helps you become more creative simply by exercising your brain.
7. Language Learning Makes You Comfortable With Failure
Being creative is tough. Whether you are producing movies, writing, or doing stand-up comedy –
most of your ideas will end up in the trash can. Even the ideas that continue past that stage will
most likely be ignored or rejected.
Creative people have to get comfortable with failure. You have to be okay if your ideas are not
accepted.

24. When you learn a second language, you are forced to fail everyday again and again. In fact, the
more you fail, the faster you’ll make progress.
You’ll make all kinds of mistakes. You’ll use the wrong word. People won’t understand your
accent. You’ll mess up the stucture of a sentence.
You’ll fail. And that’s okay. Because every time you fail, you can learn from it. And you can
improve from the failures. Each failure is just one more stepping stone toward success.
This helps you with your creativity because the more you fail as a creative, the more you are
creating,. If you can accept failure, then you can keep being persistent and continue to put out
creative work, or any work of that matter!
THREE LANGUAGE FORMULA
In order to provide facilities for teaching a minority language or mother tongue, State Education
Ministers evolved a scheme in 1949. Subsequently, the Union Education Ministry in consultation
with States formulated a Three Language Formula.
This Formula as enunciated in the National Policy Resolution of 1968 and reiterated in the National
Policy on Education 1986 provides Hindi, English and modern Indian language (preferably one of
the southern languages) in the Hindi speaking states and Hindi. English and the Regional language
in the non-Hindi speaking States. This Formula has created many difficulties for Urdu speakers.
The major grievance of Urdu speaking linguistic minority is that their children have been denied
the facility of mother tongue instruction.
The result is that a large number children of Urdu speakers are learning the regional language
instead of the mother tongue as the first language. Accordingly, the Gujral Committee
recommended the following modified form of three language formula:
(i) In Hindi speaking States:
(a) Hindi (with Sanskrit as part of the composite course);
(b) Urdu or any other modern Indian language excluding (a) and
(c) English or any other modern European language.
(ii) In non-Hindi speaking States:
(a) Regional language;
(b) Hindi;
(c) Urdu or any other modern Indian language excluding (a) and (b); and
(d) English or any other modern European language. (4.240)
The Three Language formula, at present in vogue in Andhra Pradesh with a degree of success,
may also be adopted as an alternative by the non-Hindi speaking States for Urdu speaking
population. The formula is:

25. (a) Urdu and Hindi (a composite course);
(b) Regional language;
(c) English or any other modern European language. (4.241)