Aristotle viewed causes as having four factors - material, formal, efficient, and final. The material and formal causes are intrinsic, while the efficient and final causes are extrinsic. Later philosophers like Mill defined cause as the sum of invariable antecedents. The view of causation has passed through three stages - the popular stage focused on dominant causes, the scientific stage distinguished between causes and mere coexistence, and the speculative stage viewed both causes and effects as complex. Causes can combine in mechanical or chemical ways, producing homogeneous or heterogeneous effects. Cause and effect also often interact in a relationship of mutuality.

1. Introduction to Logic
 A Short History  Though the concept
of causation has
of ‘Causation’ emerged in Pre-
Socratic
philosophy, it was
probably Plato who
first stated the
principle of causality:
However, Aristotle
was the first
philosopher to give
an extensive account
of causes.

3. Aristotle View of Causation:
Aristotle viewed cause from a wider
perspective. A cause for Aristotle is not
simple but compound in nature consisting
mainly of four factors.
Introduction to Logic

4. Intrinsic causes Extrinsic causes
 Material cause:  Efficient cause
Material cause of a thing is Efficient cause is the skill or
the matter or the substance the
out of which the effect is energy necessary for
Produced. producing
the effect.
 Formal cause:  The final cause
Formal cause of an effect The final cause of a thing is
means the very purpose for which
the new shape or the form that the change is brought in.
is given on the substance for The
the purpose behind the
production of an object or production of the effect is
effect. the
final cause of the thing.

6. Causality –  Mill defines cause as the
Mill sum total or group of
invariable and
unconditional
antecedents.

8. Introduction to Logic
. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEQUENCE
VIEW OF CAUSATION :
ACCORDING TO VENN, THIS VIEW HAS PASSED
THROUGH THREE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.
1) THE POPULAR STAGE
2) THE SCIENTIFIC STAGE
3) THE SPECULATIVE STAGE

9. Introduction to Logic
 At this stage, from
 The Popular Stage:
various causes, the
dominant cause was
singles out and regards it
as the whole cause.
Similarly, out of many
effects, only dominant
effect was considered as a
whole.

10. A distinction was
made between
Cause and mere co-
existence. Cause is
to be considered
more scientific than
the co-existence.

11. This stage goes a step farther than the
scientific stage. At this stage, the effect is
also regarded, like the cause, as complex, a
sum-total of consequents

12. Causes and Conditions:
 Condition:
A condition is anything that exercises some influence upon the effect
and is essential for bringing it about.
 Cause:
From many of conditions, we select one and call it the cause, and
refer to the others as mere conditions. Thus, scientifically speaking,
cause is a sum-total of all the condition, positive as well as negative

13. Popularity of Causes: Mill’s Doctrine:
Mill urges that one
and the same effect
may be due to any
one of several
causes, that the
same effect may be
produced sometimes
by one cause and
sometimes by
another

14. 1- If there are many variable causes
for a given effect, then Mill’s
definition of cause as a
group of invariable
antecedents collides with
it.
2- Secondly, Mill is
wrong in saying
that different causes
can produce exactly
the same effect.
3- Plurality of
causes is also against
the law of uniformity
which says that the
Same effect is
produced by the
same cause, but
plurality of causes says that the same effect can be produced
by different causes.

16. 1- Mechanical composition of 2- Chemical composition
Causes and Homogeneous of Causes and
Inter-mixture of Effects Heterogeneous Inter-
mixture of Effects
 When a number of causes  When a number of
combine in such a way causes combine in such
that the joint effect if of a way that the joint
the same kind or same effect is different in Kind
nature, then it is called from the separate
Homogeneous Inter- effects, we have a
mixture of effects. heterogeneous inter-
mixture of effects.

17. Introduction to Logic
Further two types of heterogeneous effects.
Transformations
Causes and effects can be mutually
converted into each other.
Example Hydrogen and oxygen make water and
water can be separated into hydrogen
and oxygen.
Non-Transformations:
The effects are not convertible into
their causes.
Example Bones and blood Can’t be converted
into their causes.

18. Cause and effect
often act and
react on each
other, and their
mutual action and
reaction is known
as Mutuality of
cause and effect.