Arnold Berthold conducted early endocrine experiments in 1849 showing that castration caused changes in roosters that could be reversed by testicular extracts, demonstrating the endocrine role of the testes. Claude Bernard established that hormones travel via blood to regulate the internal environment. The endocrine and nervous systems both integrate stimuli and responses but differ in their modes of communication. Hormones are categorized into peptides/proteins, amino acid derivatives, steroids, and fatty acid derivatives. Key aspects of hormone function, synthesis, regulation, and control are discussed.
Hormones act through receptor-mediated pathways. They bind to receptors on target cells and induce responses. There are several types of hormone receptors, including cell surface receptors like G protein-coupled receptors and tyrosine kinase receptors, as well as intracellular/nuclear receptors found within cells. Hormones are synthesized in various glands and organs throughout the body, then travel through the bloodstream to target tissues to exert their effects, such as regulating metabolism, growth, and development. Hormone receptors trigger intracellular signaling cascades that alter cellular functions. Antagonists can block hormone receptors to inhibit their actions.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant tissues and organs. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands. The hypothalamus and tissues like the pancreas also secrete hormones. Hormones travel through the bloodstream and bind to target cells. The pituitary gland and hypothalamus regulate other endocrine glands through feedback mechanisms. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through processes like glucose regulation and calcium balance.
This document provides an introduction to endocrinology. It defines endocrinology as the study of hormones secreted by ductless glands. It then classifies the different types of chemical messenger systems, including neurotransmitters, endocrine hormones, neuroendocrine hormones, paracrines, autocrines, and cytokines. The document further classifies hormones based on their chemical nature as proteins and polypeptides, steroids, or derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine. It also discusses the synthesis, transport, regulation of secretion, and clearance of different hormone types.
Hormones can be classified in several ways based on their chemical composition, mechanism of action, target effects, and whether they stimulate other endocrine glands. The three main types are steroid hormones, peptide hormones, and amine hormones. Steroid hormones are lipophilic and act via nuclear receptors. Peptide hormones are hydrophilic and act through cell surface receptors and secondary messengers like cAMP. Amine hormones have properties of both peptides and steroids. Hormones also differ in their local versus general actions, kinetic versus metabolic effects, and whether they stimulate other glands via tropic hormones or act directly on tissues.
This document provides an overview of endocrinology and the endocrine system. It discusses that endocrinology is the study of hormones, their receptors, and signaling pathways. It describes the major endocrine glands and their hormone functions. It also summarizes the different types of hormone actions, classifications, synthesis, secretion, transport, and feedback control of hormone levels.
The countercurrent mechanism in the kidney involves the interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle and the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels. This allows the solute concentration in the loop of Henle to range from 300 to 1200 mOsm. Water permeability is always high in the proximal tubule, always low in the ascending loop of Henle, and can be high or low in the distal tubules depending on the presence of ADH. There is a transport maximum for substances actively reabsorbed or secreted, where the tubular load exceeds the transport capacity and the substance appears in urine. The vasa recta perform countercurrent exchange to recycle NaCl in the medulla and
Hormones can be classified into four groups based on their mechanism of action. Group 1 hormones bind to intracellular receptors and include androgens, calcitriol, estrogens, glucocorticoids, and progestins. Group 2 hormones bind to cell surface receptors and use either cyclic AMP or cyclic GMP as second messengers, such as ACTH, ADH, and atrial natriuretic factor. Group 3 hormones also bind to cell surface receptors but use calcium or phosphatidyl inositols as second messengers like GnRH and TRH. Group 4 hormones signal through a kinase or phosphatase cascade as a second messenger, including insulin, GH, and prolactin.
Hormones affect almost every system in the body and can be classified by their structure and function. The document discusses steroid and peptide hormones and how hormones maintain homeostasis and control reproductive functions. It also examines the hierarchical control of hormones and how stress hormones like cortisol are involved in the fight or flight response during times of stress. Sex hormones contribute to differences in brain structure and cognitive abilities between males and females.
Hormones act through receptor-mediated pathways. They bind to receptors on target cells and induce responses. There are several types of hormone receptors, including cell surface receptors like G protein-coupled receptors and tyrosine kinase receptors, as well as intracellular/nuclear receptors found within cells. Hormones are synthesized in various glands and organs throughout the body, then travel through the bloodstream to target tissues to exert their effects, such as regulating metabolism, growth, and development. Hormone receptors trigger intracellular signaling cascades that alter cellular functions. Antagonists can block hormone receptors to inhibit their actions.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate distant tissues and organs. The major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pineal glands. The hypothalamus and tissues like the pancreas also secrete hormones. Hormones travel through the bloodstream and bind to target cells. The pituitary gland and hypothalamus regulate other endocrine glands through feedback mechanisms. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through processes like glucose regulation and calcium balance.
This document provides an introduction to endocrinology. It defines endocrinology as the study of hormones secreted by ductless glands. It then classifies the different types of chemical messenger systems, including neurotransmitters, endocrine hormones, neuroendocrine hormones, paracrines, autocrines, and cytokines. The document further classifies hormones based on their chemical nature as proteins and polypeptides, steroids, or derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine. It also discusses the synthesis, transport, regulation of secretion, and clearance of different hormone types.
Hormones can be classified in several ways based on their chemical composition, mechanism of action, target effects, and whether they stimulate other endocrine glands. The three main types are steroid hormones, peptide hormones, and amine hormones. Steroid hormones are lipophilic and act via nuclear receptors. Peptide hormones are hydrophilic and act through cell surface receptors and secondary messengers like cAMP. Amine hormones have properties of both peptides and steroids. Hormones also differ in their local versus general actions, kinetic versus metabolic effects, and whether they stimulate other glands via tropic hormones or act directly on tissues.
This document provides an overview of endocrinology and the endocrine system. It discusses that endocrinology is the study of hormones, their receptors, and signaling pathways. It describes the major endocrine glands and their hormone functions. It also summarizes the different types of hormone actions, classifications, synthesis, secretion, transport, and feedback control of hormone levels.
The countercurrent mechanism in the kidney involves the interaction between the flow of filtrate through the loop of Henle and the flow of blood through the vasa recta blood vessels. This allows the solute concentration in the loop of Henle to range from 300 to 1200 mOsm. Water permeability is always high in the proximal tubule, always low in the ascending loop of Henle, and can be high or low in the distal tubules depending on the presence of ADH. There is a transport maximum for substances actively reabsorbed or secreted, where the tubular load exceeds the transport capacity and the substance appears in urine. The vasa recta perform countercurrent exchange to recycle NaCl in the medulla and
Hormones can be classified into four groups based on their mechanism of action. Group 1 hormones bind to intracellular receptors and include androgens, calcitriol, estrogens, glucocorticoids, and progestins. Group 2 hormones bind to cell surface receptors and use either cyclic AMP or cyclic GMP as second messengers, such as ACTH, ADH, and atrial natriuretic factor. Group 3 hormones also bind to cell surface receptors but use calcium or phosphatidyl inositols as second messengers like GnRH and TRH. Group 4 hormones signal through a kinase or phosphatase cascade as a second messenger, including insulin, GH, and prolactin.
Hormones affect almost every system in the body and can be classified by their structure and function. The document discusses steroid and peptide hormones and how hormones maintain homeostasis and control reproductive functions. It also examines the hierarchical control of hormones and how stress hormones like cortisol are involved in the fight or flight response during times of stress. Sex hormones contribute to differences in brain structure and cognitive abilities between males and females.
The document discusses biorhythms and how the body's physical and mental states cycle throughout the day in regular patterns. It notes that biorhythms affect individuals from birth throughout life. The three main biorhythmic cycles are physical, emotional, and intellectual. Good sleep is important for regeneration and recovery, and different people have different natural sleep patterns as either "larks" or "owls". The biological clock controls daily cycles in organ function and energy levels throughout the day and night.
The document summarizes different mechanisms of hormone signal transduction. It describes how hormones bind to cell surface or intracellular receptors which then activate intracellular signaling pathways using second messengers like cAMP, IP3, DAG, calcium. These second messengers go on to affect cell functions like glycogen breakdown, lipid metabolism, transcription etc. through kinases and other effector proteins. The document also discusses G-protein coupled receptor pathway and steroid hormone signaling pathway involving hormone-receptor complexes in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, including:
- Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine glands and travel through the bloodstream to target organs to regulate physiological functions.
- The endocrine and nervous systems both use chemical signals but differ in speed of response and duration of signal - the endocrine system is slower acting with longer-lasting signals compared to the rapid and brief nervous system.
- Hormones have specific receptors on target cells and can cause effects through changing membrane permeability, gene expression, or second messenger systems.
- Hormone levels are measured using bioassays, immunoassays like radioimmunoassay and ELISA, or dynamic
Signalling mechanism of hormones and neuroendocrineBurhan Umer
This document summarizes various aspects of hormone signalling mechanisms, including their classification, synthesis, receptors, and measurement. It discusses how hormones can act through second messenger systems or by activating genes after binding with nuclear receptors. Feedback control of hormone secretion can be negative or positive.
The document discusses various releasing hormones including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). These releasing hormones are produced by the hypothalamus and stimulate the secretion of other hormones from the anterior pituitary gland, including adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (GH). The releasing hormones play an important role in stress response, metabolism, reproduction, and postnatal growth.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, including:
1. The endocrine system regulates biological processes through hormones and maintains homeostasis. It is made up of glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream.
2. Major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes, pineal and thymus. The pituitary gland controls other glands by releasing hormones like TSH, FSH, LH and ACTH.
3. Hormones have target cells and trigger effects like changes in cell metabolism, growth, and fluid balance. Glands maintain hormone levels through negative feedback and are stimulated by other hormones or
The document provides an introduction to endocrine physiology and compares the endocrine and nervous systems. It discusses how the endocrine system communicates via hormones traveling through the bloodstream to target cells, while the nervous system uses electrical signals. Both systems work together to coordinate body functions. The endocrine system includes glands that secrete hormones, such as the thyroid, to regulate metabolism, growth, and reproduction through distant effects on target cells.
This document summarizes several gastrointestinal hormones:
- Gastrin is produced by the pyloric mucosa and stimulates secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl) by the stomach.
- Cholecystokinin is formed in the small intestine and stimulates pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice rich in bicarbonate as well as bile and intestinal juices.
- Secretin is a peptide hormone secreted by the duodenum that stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice.
The endocrine system regulates mood, growth and development, tissue function, metabolism, and sexual/reproductive processes through glands and hormones. The pineal gland secretes melatonin which regulates sexual development, metabolism, and sleep. The hypothalamus, located at the base of the brain, controls the pituitary gland through hormones and nervous system reflexes. The pituitary gland has anterior, middle, and posterior lobes and secretes hormones that control homeostasis, metabolism and development. Disorders of the endocrine system include Cushing's disease, hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism.
Hormones regulate the structure and function of target organs and tissues. They circulate in the bloodstream and act in very small amounts on target cells. This document discusses the principles of hormonal regulation including the classification, mechanisms, and regulation of hormone secretion for various hormones like thyroid hormones, sex hormones, and parathyroid hormone. It also covers diseases related to abnormal hormone levels such as hyperparathyroidism, hypoparathyroidism, and Cushing's syndrome.
Signal transduction and hormone receptor complexmuti ullah
This document discusses signal transduction and hormone receptor complexes. It describes how signals like antigens, growth factors, hormones, neurotransmitters and nutrients can influence protein location and cell processes. It discusses ligands that bind receptors to activate or prevent signal transduction. There are different classes of receptors including intracellular receptors, cell surface receptors, G-protein coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, and nuclear receptors. The document also summarizes the structure and function of insulin receptors and other hormone receptors, as well as the specificity, selectivity and steps of signal transduction.
This document summarizes the process of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine formation. It discusses:
1. The formation of glomerular filtrate through the glomerular capillary membrane and the factors that determine GFR like renal blood flow and glomerular hydrostatic pressure.
2. The steps in urine formation - reabsorption, secretion and excretion.
3. The regulation of GFR through autoregulation, neural and hormonal mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.
The document summarizes key aspects of the endocrine system and hormone signaling. It describes two main coordinating systems - the endocrine system which secretes hormones to regulate slower processes like growth and metabolism, and the nervous system which uses fast electrical signals. Hormones are classified by their range and effects. The endocrine system uses hormones to coordinate processes in the body and maintain homeostasis via feedback loops, such as insulin and glucagon regulating blood glucose levels. Disorders like diabetes occur when these regulatory processes are disrupted.
Endocrine System and its glands in briefরেজা তানজিল
The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as endocrinology. Endocrinology is a branch of internal medicine.[1]
A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems have secondary endocrine functions, including bone, kidneys, liver, heart and gonads. For example, the kidney secretes the endocrine hormone erythropoietin. Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.[1]
The endocrine system can be contrasted to both exocrine glands, which secrete hormones to the outside of the body, and paracrine signalling between cells over a relatively short distance. Endocrine glands have no ducts, are vascular, and commonly have intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.
The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain located in the middle of the brain that regulates many important bodily functions through the hormones it produces or influences. It controls homeostasis by regulating body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormones. Dysfunction of the hypothalamus can result from head trauma, tumors, infection, or malnutrition and can lead to disorders of energy balance, thermoregulation, sleep cycles, and pituitary hormone deficiencies. Recent research also suggests high-fat diets and obesity may damage neurons in the hypothalamus and impair its ability to regulate hunger and fullness.
Hormones act by binding to specific receptors on target cells. This causes intracellular signaling through second messenger systems. There are three main types of hormone receptors: ion channel-linked receptors which open ion channels, G-protein linked receptors which activate intracellular enzymes through G proteins, and enzyme-linked receptors which have enzymatic activity within the cell. Major second messenger systems include cyclic AMP produced by adenylyl cyclase, phospholipids, and calcium. Steroid and thyroid hormones enter cells and activate gene transcription by binding hormone response elements in DNA. The key steps in hormone signaling are the external hormone, cell membrane receptor, intracellular transducer, amplifier, second messenger, effectors, and cellular response.
anatomy and physiology of adrenal cortex . detail of artery and venous supply along with histological differences of adrenal cortex . detail of biosynthesis of adrenocorticosteroids. reaction of biosynthesis of cortisol , androgen and aldosterone in different region ie. zona fasciculata, zona reticularis and zona glomerulosa respectively. biochemical function of cortisol and aldosterone along with structures. congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Hormones are signaling molecules produced by glands that are transported via bloodstream to target distant organs to regulate physiology. They are classified as proteinaceous (peptide) hormones or non-proteinaceous (steroid) hormones. Some important peptide hormones include insulin which regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism, glucagon which raises blood sugar levels, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which regulates glucocorticoid secretion, antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which regulates water retention, oxytocin which causes uterine contraction and lactation, and prolactin which promotes milk production. Each hormone has specific functions, and deficiencies or excesses can result in various diseases treated through medication or manipulating hormone levels.
This document discusses the pituitary gland. It begins with an introduction to the functional anatomy and hormones of the anterior pituitary gland. It then describes the gross anatomy and development of the pituitary gland. The document outlines the parts of the pituitary gland including the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. It details the histological structure and blood supply of the pituitary gland. The relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary is examined, including the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system. Finally, the major anterior pituitary hormones are identified as the growth hormone family, glycoprotein hormone family, and pro-opiomelanocortin peptides family.
The document discusses several key topics in endocrine physiology:
1. It describes early endocrine experiments in the 1800s by Berthold and Bernard that helped establish the concepts of hormone targets and homeostasis.
2. It summarizes the major classes of hormones - peptides/proteins, amines, steroids, and eicosanoids - and how they are synthesized and regulated.
3. Feedback control mechanisms, especially negative feedback loops, are a major way the endocrine system regulates hormone production and maintains homeostasis.
1. Professor Arnold Berthold conducted early endocrine experiments in 1849, finding that a rooster's comb and behavior depended on its testes and that removal's effects could be reversed with testicular extracts.
2. Ernest Starling coined the term "hormone" in 1902 to describe secretin, establishing the endocrine system's role in homeostasis through hormone secretion maintaining stable internal conditions.
3. The endocrine and nervous systems utilize chemical and electrical signaling respectively to regulate bodily processes and homeostasis through hormone target organs and tissues throughout the body.
The document discusses biorhythms and how the body's physical and mental states cycle throughout the day in regular patterns. It notes that biorhythms affect individuals from birth throughout life. The three main biorhythmic cycles are physical, emotional, and intellectual. Good sleep is important for regeneration and recovery, and different people have different natural sleep patterns as either "larks" or "owls". The biological clock controls daily cycles in organ function and energy levels throughout the day and night.
The document summarizes different mechanisms of hormone signal transduction. It describes how hormones bind to cell surface or intracellular receptors which then activate intracellular signaling pathways using second messengers like cAMP, IP3, DAG, calcium. These second messengers go on to affect cell functions like glycogen breakdown, lipid metabolism, transcription etc. through kinases and other effector proteins. The document also discusses G-protein coupled receptor pathway and steroid hormone signaling pathway involving hormone-receptor complexes in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, including:
- Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine glands and travel through the bloodstream to target organs to regulate physiological functions.
- The endocrine and nervous systems both use chemical signals but differ in speed of response and duration of signal - the endocrine system is slower acting with longer-lasting signals compared to the rapid and brief nervous system.
- Hormones have specific receptors on target cells and can cause effects through changing membrane permeability, gene expression, or second messenger systems.
- Hormone levels are measured using bioassays, immunoassays like radioimmunoassay and ELISA, or dynamic
Signalling mechanism of hormones and neuroendocrineBurhan Umer
This document summarizes various aspects of hormone signalling mechanisms, including their classification, synthesis, receptors, and measurement. It discusses how hormones can act through second messenger systems or by activating genes after binding with nuclear receptors. Feedback control of hormone secretion can be negative or positive.
The document discusses various releasing hormones including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), and growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). These releasing hormones are produced by the hypothalamus and stimulate the secretion of other hormones from the anterior pituitary gland, including adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (GH). The releasing hormones play an important role in stress response, metabolism, reproduction, and postnatal growth.
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, including:
1. The endocrine system regulates biological processes through hormones and maintains homeostasis. It is made up of glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream.
2. Major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes, pineal and thymus. The pituitary gland controls other glands by releasing hormones like TSH, FSH, LH and ACTH.
3. Hormones have target cells and trigger effects like changes in cell metabolism, growth, and fluid balance. Glands maintain hormone levels through negative feedback and are stimulated by other hormones or
The document provides an introduction to endocrine physiology and compares the endocrine and nervous systems. It discusses how the endocrine system communicates via hormones traveling through the bloodstream to target cells, while the nervous system uses electrical signals. Both systems work together to coordinate body functions. The endocrine system includes glands that secrete hormones, such as the thyroid, to regulate metabolism, growth, and reproduction through distant effects on target cells.
This document summarizes several gastrointestinal hormones:
- Gastrin is produced by the pyloric mucosa and stimulates secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl) by the stomach.
- Cholecystokinin is formed in the small intestine and stimulates pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice rich in bicarbonate as well as bile and intestinal juices.
- Secretin is a peptide hormone secreted by the duodenum that stimulates secretion of pancreatic juice.
The endocrine system regulates mood, growth and development, tissue function, metabolism, and sexual/reproductive processes through glands and hormones. The pineal gland secretes melatonin which regulates sexual development, metabolism, and sleep. The hypothalamus, located at the base of the brain, controls the pituitary gland through hormones and nervous system reflexes. The pituitary gland has anterior, middle, and posterior lobes and secretes hormones that control homeostasis, metabolism and development. Disorders of the endocrine system include Cushing's disease, hyperthyroidism, and hypothyroidism.
Hormones regulate the structure and function of target organs and tissues. They circulate in the bloodstream and act in very small amounts on target cells. This document discusses the principles of hormonal regulation including the classification, mechanisms, and regulation of hormone secretion for various hormones like thyroid hormones, sex hormones, and parathyroid hormone. It also covers diseases related to abnormal hormone levels such as hyperparathyroidism, hypoparathyroidism, and Cushing's syndrome.
Signal transduction and hormone receptor complexmuti ullah
This document discusses signal transduction and hormone receptor complexes. It describes how signals like antigens, growth factors, hormones, neurotransmitters and nutrients can influence protein location and cell processes. It discusses ligands that bind receptors to activate or prevent signal transduction. There are different classes of receptors including intracellular receptors, cell surface receptors, G-protein coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinases, and nuclear receptors. The document also summarizes the structure and function of insulin receptors and other hormone receptors, as well as the specificity, selectivity and steps of signal transduction.
This document summarizes the process of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine formation. It discusses:
1. The formation of glomerular filtrate through the glomerular capillary membrane and the factors that determine GFR like renal blood flow and glomerular hydrostatic pressure.
2. The steps in urine formation - reabsorption, secretion and excretion.
3. The regulation of GFR through autoregulation, neural and hormonal mechanisms to maintain homeostasis.
The document summarizes key aspects of the endocrine system and hormone signaling. It describes two main coordinating systems - the endocrine system which secretes hormones to regulate slower processes like growth and metabolism, and the nervous system which uses fast electrical signals. Hormones are classified by their range and effects. The endocrine system uses hormones to coordinate processes in the body and maintain homeostasis via feedback loops, such as insulin and glucagon regulating blood glucose levels. Disorders like diabetes occur when these regulatory processes are disrupted.
Endocrine System and its glands in briefরেজা তানজিল
The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system comprising feedback loops of the hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as endocrinology. Endocrinology is a branch of internal medicine.[1]
A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, such as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems have secondary endocrine functions, including bone, kidneys, liver, heart and gonads. For example, the kidney secretes the endocrine hormone erythropoietin. Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.[1]
The endocrine system can be contrasted to both exocrine glands, which secrete hormones to the outside of the body, and paracrine signalling between cells over a relatively short distance. Endocrine glands have no ducts, are vascular, and commonly have intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.
The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain located in the middle of the brain that regulates many important bodily functions through the hormones it produces or influences. It controls homeostasis by regulating body temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormones. Dysfunction of the hypothalamus can result from head trauma, tumors, infection, or malnutrition and can lead to disorders of energy balance, thermoregulation, sleep cycles, and pituitary hormone deficiencies. Recent research also suggests high-fat diets and obesity may damage neurons in the hypothalamus and impair its ability to regulate hunger and fullness.
Hormones act by binding to specific receptors on target cells. This causes intracellular signaling through second messenger systems. There are three main types of hormone receptors: ion channel-linked receptors which open ion channels, G-protein linked receptors which activate intracellular enzymes through G proteins, and enzyme-linked receptors which have enzymatic activity within the cell. Major second messenger systems include cyclic AMP produced by adenylyl cyclase, phospholipids, and calcium. Steroid and thyroid hormones enter cells and activate gene transcription by binding hormone response elements in DNA. The key steps in hormone signaling are the external hormone, cell membrane receptor, intracellular transducer, amplifier, second messenger, effectors, and cellular response.
anatomy and physiology of adrenal cortex . detail of artery and venous supply along with histological differences of adrenal cortex . detail of biosynthesis of adrenocorticosteroids. reaction of biosynthesis of cortisol , androgen and aldosterone in different region ie. zona fasciculata, zona reticularis and zona glomerulosa respectively. biochemical function of cortisol and aldosterone along with structures. congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
Hormones are signaling molecules produced by glands that are transported via bloodstream to target distant organs to regulate physiology. They are classified as proteinaceous (peptide) hormones or non-proteinaceous (steroid) hormones. Some important peptide hormones include insulin which regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism, glucagon which raises blood sugar levels, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which regulates glucocorticoid secretion, antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which regulates water retention, oxytocin which causes uterine contraction and lactation, and prolactin which promotes milk production. Each hormone has specific functions, and deficiencies or excesses can result in various diseases treated through medication or manipulating hormone levels.
This document discusses the pituitary gland. It begins with an introduction to the functional anatomy and hormones of the anterior pituitary gland. It then describes the gross anatomy and development of the pituitary gland. The document outlines the parts of the pituitary gland including the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. It details the histological structure and blood supply of the pituitary gland. The relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary is examined, including the hypothalamic-pituitary portal system. Finally, the major anterior pituitary hormones are identified as the growth hormone family, glycoprotein hormone family, and pro-opiomelanocortin peptides family.
The document discusses several key topics in endocrine physiology:
1. It describes early endocrine experiments in the 1800s by Berthold and Bernard that helped establish the concepts of hormone targets and homeostasis.
2. It summarizes the major classes of hormones - peptides/proteins, amines, steroids, and eicosanoids - and how they are synthesized and regulated.
3. Feedback control mechanisms, especially negative feedback loops, are a major way the endocrine system regulates hormone production and maintains homeostasis.
1. Professor Arnold Berthold conducted early endocrine experiments in 1849, finding that a rooster's comb and behavior depended on its testes and that removal's effects could be reversed with testicular extracts.
2. Ernest Starling coined the term "hormone" in 1902 to describe secretin, establishing the endocrine system's role in homeostasis through hormone secretion maintaining stable internal conditions.
3. The endocrine and nervous systems utilize chemical and electrical signaling respectively to regulate bodily processes and homeostasis through hormone target organs and tissues throughout the body.
The document discusses endocrinology and the endocrine system. It provides details on:
- The endocrine system uses hormones to control physiological processes through transmitters, signals, and receivers.
- The main endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, and reproductive glands.
- Each gland produces specific hormones that target certain cells and tissues to regulate key body functions like growth, metabolism, sexual development, stress response, and more.
- The hormones work through feedback loops controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
22.chemical control & coordination in one shot.pptxanonymous
There are special chemicals which act as hormones and provide chemical
coordination, integration and regulation in the human body. These hormones
regulate metabolism, growth and development of our organs, the endocrine glands
or certain cells. The endocrine system is composed of hypothalamus, pituitary
and pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis
and ovary). In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract,
kidney, heart etc., also produce hormones. Progesterone plays a major role in the maintenance of pregnancy as
well as in mammary gland development and lactation. The atrial wall of the heart
produces atrial natriuretic factor which decreases the blood pressure. Kidney
produces erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis. The gastrointestinal tract
secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide. These
hormones regulate the secretion of digestive juices and help in digestion.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted by endocrine cells and glands. They regulate functions in target cells by binding to specific receptors. There are two main classes - peptide hormones which are proteins or glycoproteins, and steroid hormones which are derived from cholesterol. Hormones trigger cellular responses through signal transduction pathways and regulate important bodily processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
The active principles of the endocrine glands are called hormones.
Hormones are specific chemical substances discharged directly into the blood.
The blood distributes the hormones through out the body.
The document discusses the endocrine system and mechanisms of hormonal regulation. It describes how the endocrine system evolved to establish relationships between cells and organs. The endocrine system regulates metabolic activities through hormonal signals carried by the bloodstream, allowing for longer-duration responses compared to the faster neural system. Hormones can be classified based on their biochemical structure as steroids, proteins/peptides, or amines. They act through specific target tissues and receptors to influence various physiological processes like reproduction and metabolism.
Chemical messengers known as hormones coordinate body functions through various modes of communication between cells. Endocrine hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and target distant cells. Neuroendocrine hormones also target distant cells through the blood. Paracrine hormones act on neighboring cells, while autocrine hormones act on the same cells that secrete them. Hormones can be proteins, peptides, steroids, derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine, or cytokines. They bind to receptors that trigger intracellular signaling cascades to produce physiological responses in target cells.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands and target specific organs. The endocrine system regulates bodily functions through hormones, while the nervous system uses nerves. There are two main types of hormones - lipid-soluble hormones like steroids which diffuse through cell membranes, and water-soluble hormones like peptides which bind to surface receptors. Major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, pancreas, adrenals, ovaries/testes, which regulate growth, metabolism, sexual development, and other processes. Hormones bind to receptors on target cells and trigger physiological responses through various mechanisms of action.
The document discusses the endocrine system, which regulates homeostasis through the secretion of hormones directly into the bloodstream. It describes the major endocrine glands and hormones, including the hypothalamus and pituitary gland which regulate other glands. The hormones act on target cells through various mechanisms, such as binding to intracellular receptors to activate genes or binding to cell surface receptors and triggering secondary messengers like cAMP. The endocrine system works in tandem with the nervous system to coordinate bodily functions.
The endocrine system regulates bodily functions through hormones secreted into the bloodstream. Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the body and bind to target cells. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through feedback loops that regulate hormone production and secretion. Hormone receptors on target cells determine the cells' response, and the endocrine system controls hormone levels through patterns of secretion including pulsatile, acute, and cyclic release.
The endocrine system regulates and integrates various physiological functions through hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands and travel to target cells. There are two main classes of hormones - steroid hormones which are lipid soluble and can pass through cell membranes, and peptide hormones which are water soluble and bind to surface receptors of target cells. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through feedback mechanisms that regulate hormone secretion and receptor levels.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system and its glands. It discusses the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, pineal gland and thymus gland. For each gland it describes the hormones produced and their functions in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, and sexual development. The mechanisms of hormonal secretion and action are also summarized.
Introduction to Endocrinology by Dr. Amna Tahir (08.04.2020).pptxssusere296ef
The document provides an introduction to the endocrine system. It defines key terms like endocrine, hormone, and feedback mechanisms. It describes the main endocrine organs and glands, including how hormones are classified, produced, stored, transported, and cleared from the bloodstream. The endocrine system regulates physiological processes through the secretion of hormones into the bloodstream.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system and hormones. It discusses the discovery of hormones in 1902 by Bayliss and Starling. It defines hormones and describes the principal functions of the endocrine system in maintaining homeostasis, growth, development, and reproduction. It compares the endocrine and nervous systems and describes different types of cell signaling. It provides details on the major endocrine glands and hormones, hormone classification, mechanisms of hormone action, and feedback control of hormone secretion.
The document discusses the endocrine system and hormones. It defines hormones as regulatory substances released by cells to regulate other cells. Hormones can travel through different systems like endocrine, neuroendocrine, and paracrine systems. The key glands of the endocrine system include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads. Hormones maintain homeostasis, growth and development, metabolism, and reproduction. The document discusses the different types of hormones like proteins/peptides, steroids, and amines as well as their synthesis and mechanisms of action.
This document discusses endocrinology and hormones. It defines endocrinology as the science of endocrine glands and their functions and disorders. Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream without ducts. Hormones are chemical messengers that affect cells distant from their site of secretion. There are two types of hormonal action - through intracellular mediators like cAMP or through gene mediators by binding to DNA. Major endocrine glands and their hormones are described.
Hormones in human body , biological bases of behavior Anand Choudhary
This document provides an overview of hormones and their functions. It describes hormones as chemicals secreted by endocrine glands that influence other glands and organs. There are two major classes of hormones - protein hormones like insulin and glucagon, and steroid hormones derived from cholesterol like corticoids and sex steroids. The release of hormones is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland using negative feedback systems. Specific hormonal disorders that impact sexual development and characteristics are also discussed, as well as the effects of pheromones on behavior in animals and humans.
This document discusses different types of glands and hormones. It describes endocrine glands, which secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are chemical messengers that control and regulate certain cells and organs. The major types of hormones are amino acid derivatives, peptides, and steroids, which are classified based on their chemical structure and include hormones like epinephrine, insulin, estrogen and testosterone. The document also explains the mechanisms of hormone action, where hormones bind to specific cell receptors and trigger intracellular processes or gene expression that produce a physiological response.
Similar to Introduction to Endocrine Dr. Pandian M. (20)
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COMPOSITION
BLOOD CELLS
PLASMA
SERUM
FUNCTIONS
NUTRITIVE FUNCTION
RESPIRATORY FUNCTION
EXCRETORY FUNCTION
TRANSPORT OF HORMONES AND ENZYMES
REGULATION OF WATER BALANCE
REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE
REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
STORAGE FUNCTION
DEFENSIVE FUNCTION
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TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14...Donc Test
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
TEST BANK For Brunner and Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 14th Edition (Hinkle, 2017) Verified Chapter's 1 - 73 Complete.pdf
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Computer in pharmaceutical research and development-Mpharm(Pharmaceutics)MuskanShingari
Statistics- Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting numerical data to assist in making more effective decisions.
A statistics is a measure which is used to estimate the population parameter
Parameters-It is used to describe the properties of an entire population.
Examples-Measures of central tendency Dispersion, Variance, Standard Deviation (SD), Absolute Error, Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Eigen Value
The Children are very vulnerable to get affected with respiratory disease.
In our country, the respiratory Disease conditions are consider as major cause for mortality and Morbidity in Child.
“Psychiatry and the Humanities”: An Innovative Course at the University of Mo...Université de Montréal
“Psychiatry and the Humanities”: An Innovative Course at the University of Montreal Expanding the medical model to embrace the humanities. Link: https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/-psychiatry-and-the-humanities-an-innovative-course-at-the-university-of-montreal
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Giloy, also known as Guduchi or Amrita in classical Ayurvedic texts, is a revered herb renowned for its myriad health benefits. It is categorized as a Rasayana, meaning it has rejuvenating properties that enhance vitality and longevity. Giloy is celebrated for its ability to boost the immune system, detoxify the body, and promote overall wellness. Its anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and antioxidant properties make it a staple in managing conditions like fever, diabetes, and stress. The versatility and efficacy of Giloy in supporting health naturally highlight its importance in Ayurveda. At Planet Ayurveda, we provide a comprehensive range of health services and 100% herbal supplements that harness the power of natural ingredients like Giloy. Our products are globally available and affordable, ensuring that everyone can benefit from the ancient wisdom of Ayurveda. If you or your loved ones are dealing with health issues, contact Planet Ayurveda at 01725214040 to book an online video consultation with our professional doctors. Let us help you achieve optimal health and wellness naturally.
Nutritional deficiency Disorder are problems in india.
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Nano-gold for Cancer Therapy chemistry investigatory projectSIVAVINAYAKPK
chemistry investigatory project
The development of nanogold-based cancer therapy could revolutionize oncology by providing a more targeted, less invasive treatment option. This project contributes to the growing body of research aimed at harnessing nanotechnology for medical applications, paving the way for future clinical trials and potential commercial applications.
Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, prompting the need for innovative treatment methods. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches, including the use of gold nanoparticles (nanogold) for targeted cancer therapy. Nanogold particles possess unique physical and chemical properties that make them suitable for drug delivery, imaging, and photothermal therapy.
PGx Analysis in VarSeq: A User’s PerspectiveGolden Helix
Since our release of the PGx capabilities in VarSeq, we’ve had a few months to gather some insights from various use cases. Some users approach PGx workflows by means of array genotyping or what seems to be a growing trend of adding the star allele calling to the existing NGS pipeline for whole genome data. Luckily, both approaches are supported with the VarSeq software platform. The genotyping method being used will also dictate what the scope of the tertiary analysis will be. For example, are your PGx reports a standalone pipeline or would your lab’s goal be to handle a dual-purpose workflow and report on PGx + Diagnostic findings.
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STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF SPECIAL POPULATIONS: GERIATRICS E7shruti jagirdar
Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
likely to have significant use in the elderly, either because the disease intended
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because the population to be treated is known to include substantial numbers of
geriatric patients (e.g., hypertension).
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
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2. Arnold A Berthold
(1803-1861)
• In one of the first endocrine
experiments ever recorded,
Professor Arnold A. Berthold of
Gottingen did a series of tests
on roosters in 1849 while he
was curator of the local zoo.
3. Ablation and replacement
•Bethold found that a rooster's comb is an
androgen-dependent structure. Following
castration, the comb atrophies, aggressive male
behavior disappears, and interest in the hens is
lost.
•Importantly, Berthold also found that these
castration-induced changes could be reversed by
administration of a crude testicular extract (or
prevented by transplantation of the testes).
4. Claude Bernard
(1813-1878)
Claude Bernard stated that the
endocrine system regulates the
internal milieu of an animal. The
“internal secretions” were
liberated by one part of the body,
traveled via the bloodstream to
distant targets cells. Circa 1854
Bernard's charge was to
demonstrate that medicine, in
order to progress, must be
founded on experimental
physiology.
5. Endocrine system maintains
homeostasis
The concept that hormones acting on distant target
cells to maintain the stability of the internal milieu
was a major advance in physiological
understanding.
The secretion of the hormone was evoked by a
change in the milieu and the resulting action on
the target cell restored the milieu to normal.
The desired return to the status quo results in the
maintenance of homeostasis
6. Charles Edouard Brown-Séquard
(1817-1894)
• Brown-Sequard further piqued mainstream
scientific interest in the chemical contents of the
testes with his famous auto-experimentation. On
June 1, 1889, before the Sociète de Biologic in
Paris, Brown-Sequard reported that he had
increased his physical strength, mental abilities and
appetite by self-injection with an extract derived
from the testicles of dogs and guinea pigs
• Although never substantiated, this claim prompted
researchers around the world to pursue the new field
of organotherapy
7. Ernest Henry Starling
(1866-1927)
• Besides "his" law of the heart, Starling discovered
the functional significance of serum proteins.
• In 1902 along with Bayliss he demonstrated that
secretin stimulates pancreatic secretion.
• In 1924 along with E. B. Vernay he demonstrated
the reabsorption of water by the tubules of the
kidney.
• He was the first to use the term hormone
9. Sensing and signaling
Endocrine “glands”
synthesize and store
hormones. These glands
have a sensing and
signaling system which
regulate the duration and
magnitude of hormone
release via feedback from
the target cell.
10. Endocrine vs. Nervous System
• Major communication systems in the body
• Integrate stimuli and responses to changes
in external and internal environment
• Both are crucial to coordinated functions of
highly differentiated cells, tissues and
organs
• Unlike the nervous system, the endocrine
system is anatomically discontinuous.
11. Nervous system
•The nervous system exerts
point-to-point control through
nerves, similar to sending
messages by conventional
telephone. Nervous control is
electrical in nature and fast.
12. Hormones travel via the
bloodstream to target cells
•The endocrine system broadcasts its
hormonal messages to essentially all
cells by secretion into blood and
extracellular fluid. Like a radio
broadcast, it requires a receiver to get
the message - in the case of endocrine
messages, cells must bear a receptor
for the hormone being broadcast in
order to respond.
13. A cell is a target because is has a specific
receptor for the hormone
Most hormones circulate in blood, coming into contact with essentially
all cells. However, a given hormone usually affects only a limited
number of cells, which are called target cells. A target cell responds
to a hormone because it bears receptors for the hormone.
14. Principal functions of the
endocrine system
• Maintenance of the internal environment in the
body (maintaining the optimum biochemical
environment).
• Integration and regulation of growth and
development.
• Control, maintenance and instigation of sexual
reproduction, including gametogenesis, coitus,
fertilization, fetal growth and development and
nourishment of the newborn.
15. Types of cell-to-cell signaling
Classic endocrine hormones
travel via bloodstream to
target cells; neurohormones
are released via synapses and
travel via the bloostream;
paracrine hormones act on
adjacent cells and autocrine
hormones are released and
act on the cell that secreted
them. Also, intracrine
hormones act within the cell
that produces them.
16. Response vs. distance traveled
Endocrine action: the hormone is distributed in blood and binds to
distant target cells.
Paracrine action: the hormone acts locally by diffusing from its
source to target cells in the neighborhood.
Autocrine action: the hormone acts on the same cell that produced
it.
17. Major hormones and systems
• Top down organization of endocrine system.
• Hypothalamus produces releasing factors that
stimulate production of anterior pituitary hormone
which act on peripheral endocrine gland to
stimulate release of third hormone
– Specific examples to follow
• Posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized in
neuronal cell bodies in the hypothalamus and are
released via synapses in posterior pituitary.
– Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
18. Types of hormones
• Hormones are categorized into four
structural groups, with members of each
group having many properties in
common:
– Peptides and proteins
– Amino acid derivatives
– Steroids
– Fatty acid derivatives - Eicosanoids
19. Range from 3 amino acids to hundreds of
amino acids in size.
Often produced as larger molecular weight
precursors that are proteolytically cleaved to
the active form of the hormone.
Peptide/protein hormones are water soluble.
Comprise the largest number of hormones–
perhaps in thousands
Peptide/protein hormones
20. Peptide/protein hormones
• Are encoded by a specific gene which is transcribed into
mRNA and translated into a protein precursor called a
preprohormone
• Preprohormones are often post-translationally modified in
the ER to contain carbohydrates (glycosylation)
• Preprohormones contain signal peptides (hydrophobic
amino acids) which targets them to the golgi where signal
sequence is removed to form prohormone
• Prohormone is processed into active hormone and
packaged into secretory vessicles
21. Peptide/protein hormones
• Secretory vesicles move to plasma membrane where they
await a signal. Then they are exocytosed and secreted into
blood stream
• In some cases the prohormone is secreted and converted in
the extracellular fluid into the active hormone: an example
is angiotensin is secreted by liver and converted into active
form by enzymes secreted by kidney and lung
23. Amine hormones
There are two groups of hormones derived from the
amino acid tyrosine
Thyroid hormones and Catecholamines
24. Thyroid Hormone
Thyroid hormones are basically a "double" tyrosine with
the critical incorporation of 3 or 4 iodine atoms.
Thyroid hormone is produced by the thyroid gland and
is lipid soluble
Thyroid hormones are produced by modification of a
tyrosine residue contained in thyroglobulin, post-
translationally modified to bind iodine, then proteolytically
cleaved and released as T4 and T3. T3 and T4 then bind to
thyroxin binding globulin for transport in the blood
26. Catecholamine hormones
Catecholamines are both neurohormones and
neurotransmitters.
These include epinephrine, and norepinephrine
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced
by the adrenal medulla both are water soluble
Secreted like peptide hormones
28. Amine Hormones
• Two other amino acids are used for
synthesis of hormones:
• Tryptophan is the precursor to serotonin
and the pineal hormone melatonin
• Glutamic acid is converted to histamine
29. All steroid hormones are derived from
cholesterol and differ only in the ring
structure and side chains attached to it.
All steroid hormones are lipid soluble
Steroid hormones
30. Types of steroid hormones
• Glucocorticoids; cortisol is the major
representative in most mammals
• Mineralocorticoids; aldosterone being
most prominent
• Androgens such as testosterone
• Estrogens, including estradiol and estrone
• Progestogens (also known a progestins)
such as progesterone
31. Steroid hormones
• Are not packaged, but synthesized and
immediately released
• Are all derived from the same parent compound:
Cholesterol
• Enzymes which produce steroid hormones from
cholesterol are located in mitochondria and
smooth ER
• Steroids are lipid soluble and thus are freely
permeable to membranes so are not stored in cells
32. Steroid hormones
• Steroid hormones are not water soluble so have to
be carried in the blood complexed to specific
binding globulins.
• Corticosteroid binding globulin carries cortisol
• Sex steroid binding globulin carries testosterone
and estradiol
• In some cases a steroid is secreted by one cell and
is converted to the active steroid by the target cell:
an example is androgen which secreted by the
gonad and converted into estrogen in the brain
33. Steroids can be transformed
to active steroid in target cell
34. Steroidogenic Enzymes
Common name "Old" name Current name
Side-chain cleavage enzyme;
desmolase
P450SCC CYP11A1
3 beta-hydroxysteroid
dehydrogenase
3 beta-HSD 3 beta-HSD
17 alpha-hydroxylase/17,20 lyase P450C17 CYP17
21-hydroxylase P450C21 CYP21A2
11 beta-hydroxylase P450C11 CYP11B1
Aldosterone synthase P450C11AS CYP11B2
Aromatase P450aro CYP19
35.
36. Steroid hormone synthesis
All steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol.
A series of enzymatic steps in the mitochondria
and ER of steroidogenic tissues convert
cholesterol into all of the other steroid hormones
and intermediates.
The rate-limiting step in this process is the
transport of free cholesterol from the cytoplasm
into mitochondria. This step is carried out by the
Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory Protein (StAR)
37. Steroid hormone synthesis
•The cholesterol precursor comes from cholesterol
synthesized within the cell from acetate, from
cholesterol ester stores in intracellular lipid
droplets or from uptake of cholesterol-containing
low density lipoproteins.
•Lipoproteins taken up from plasma are most
important when steroidogenic cells are chronically
stimulated.
39. 1,25-dihydroxy Vitamin D3 is also derived
from cholesterol and is lipid soluble
Not really a “vitamin” as it can be
synthesized de novo
Acts as a true hormone
1,25-Dihydroxy Vitamin D3
40. Fatty Acid Derivatives -
Eicosanoids
• Arachadonic acid is the most abundant
precursor for these hormones. Stores of
arachadonic acid are present in membrane lipids
and released through the action of various lipases.
The specific eicosanoids synthesized by a cell are
dictated by the battery of processing enzymes
expressed in that cell.
• These hormones are rapidly inactivated by being
metabolized, and are typically active for only a
few seconds.
41. Fatty Acid Derivatives -
Eicosanoids
• Eicosanoids are a large group of molecules
derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids.
• The principal groups of hormones of this
class are prostaglandins, prostacyclins,
leukotrienes and thromboxanes.
42. Regulation of hormone
secretion
Sensing and signaling: a biological need is sensed,
the endocrine system sends out a signal to a target
cell whose action addresses the biological need.
Key features of this stimulus response system are:
receipt of stimulus
synthesis and secretion of hormone
delivery of hormone to target cell
evoking target cell response
degradation of hormone
43. Control of Endocrine Activity
•The physiologic effects of hormones depend
largely on their concentration in blood and
extracellular fluid.
•Almost inevitably, disease results when hormone
concentrations are either too high or too low, and
precise control over circulating concentrations of
hormones is therefore crucial.
44. Control of Endocrine Activity
The concentration of hormone as seen by target
cells is determined by three factors:
•Rate of production
•Rate of delivery
•Rate of degradation and elimination
45. Control of Endocrine Activity
Rate of production: Synthesis and secretion of
hormones are the most highly regulated aspect of
endocrine control. Such control is mediated by
positive and negative feedback circuits, as described
below in more detail.
46. Control of Endocrine Activity
Rate of delivery: An example of this effect is
blood flow to a target organ or group of target
cells - high blood flow delivers more hormone
than low blood flow.
47. Control of Endocrine Activity
Rate of degradation and elimination: Hormones,
like all biomolecules, have characteristic rates of
decay, and are metabolized and excreted from the
body through several routes.
Shutting off secretion of a hormone that has a very
short half-life causes circulating hormone
concentration to plummet, but if a hormone's
biological half-life is long, effective concentrations
persist for some time after secretion ceases.
48. Feedback Control of Hormone
Production
Feedback loops are used
extensively to regulate
secretion of hormones in the
hypothalamic-pituitary axis.
An important example of a
negative feedback loop is seen
in control of thyroid hormone
secretion
50. Neural control
• Neural input to hypothalamus stimulates
synthesis and secretion of releasing factors
which stimulate pituitary hormone
production and release
51. Chronotropic control
• Endogenous neuronal rhythmicity
• Diurnal rhythms, circadian rhythms (growth
hormone and cortisol), Sleep-wake cycle;
seasonal rhythm
52. Episodic secretion of
hormones
• Response-stimulus coupling enables the
endocrine system to remain responsive to
physiological demands
• Secretory episodes occur with different
periodicity
• Pulses can be as frequent as every 5-10
minutes
53. • The most prominent episodes of release occur
with a frequency of about one hour—referred to as
circhoral
• An episode of release longer than an hour, but less
than 24 hours, the rhythm is referred to as
ultradian
• If the periodicity is approximately 24 hours, the
rhythm is referred to as circadian
– usually referred to as diurnal because the increase in
secretory activity happens at a defined period of the
day.
Episodic secretion of hormones
56. Physiological importance of
pulsatile hormone release
• Demonstrated by GnRH infusion
• If given once hourly, gonadotropin secretion and
gonadal function are maintained normally
• A slower frequency won’t maintain gonad
function
• Faster, or continuous infusion inhibits
gonadotropin secretion and blocks gonadal steroid
production
57. Clinical correlate
• Long-acting GnRH analogs (such as
leuproline) have been applied to the
treatment of precocious puberty, to
manipulate reproductive cycles (used in
IVF), for the treatment of endometriosis,
PCOS, uterine leiomyoma etc
58. Feedback control
• Negative feedback is most common: for example,
LH from pituitary stimulates the testis to produce
testosterone which in turn feeds back and inhibits
LH secretion
• Positive feedback is less common: examples
include LH stimulation of estrogen which
stimulates LH surge at ovulation