Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining spatial measurements from photographs. This document discusses key concepts in photogrammetry including: - The differences between maps and aerial photographs in terms of projections, scales, and representations. - Basic photogrammetry principles including exterior orientation to relate image coordinates to real-world coordinates using ground control points. - Interior orientation to model the camera geometry and establish relationships between pixel coordinates and image coordinates. - Calculating scanning resolution for digitizing aerial photographs to achieve a desired ground resolution for orthophotos. - Photogrammetric triangulation to compute camera station positions and orientations using measured image tie points and ground control points.

1. 1
Koert Sijmons
Introduction on Photogrammetry
By: Koert Sijmons

2. 3
Koert Sijmons
Topographic map Aerial photograph

3. 4
Koert Sijmons
Difference between map and photo
 MAP  PHOTOGRAPH
Orthogonal projection. Central perspective projection
Uniform scale. Variable scales.
Terrain relief without
distortion (contour
lines).
Relief displacement in the image
All objects are represented
also the non visible
Only objects that are
visible.
An abstract representation Is a real representation
of the earth surface, no legend needed.
Cont.

4. 5
Koert Sijmons
Difference between map and photo
Cont.
Representation geometrically
correct
Representation geometrically
not correct
Elements appear
displaced in its real
position and in different
shapes, due to the generalization
process.
Objects appear displaced due to
geometric distortions.
 MAP  PHOTOGRAPH

5. 6
Koert Sijmons
Basic principles of Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining
spatial measurements and other geometrically reliable derived
products from photographs.
Obtaining approximate distances, areas, and elevations using
hardcopy photographic products with unsophisticated equipment
Photogrammetric analysis procedures can range from:
Geometric concepts to generating precise digital elevation
Models (DEMs), Orthophotos,and thematic GIS data
Cont.

6. 7
Koert Sijmons
Introduction
The terms digital and softcopy photogrammetry are inter-
changeable to refer to any photogrammetric operation
involving the use of digital raster photographic image data
rather than hardcopy images.
Digital photogrammetry is changing rapidly and forms the
basis for most current photogrammetric operations.
However, the same basic geometry principles apply to
traditional hardcopy (analog) and softcopy (digital )
procedures.
Cont.

7. 8
Koert Sijmons
Introduction
Mapping from aerial photographs can take on numerous forms
and can employ either hardcopy or softcopy approaches.
Traditionally, topographic maps have been produced from
hardcopy stereo-pairs in a stereo-plotter device.
A stereo-plotter is designed to transfer map information
without distortions, from stereo photographs.
A similar device can be used to transfer image information,
with distortions removed, in the form of an Orthophoto.
Cont.

8. 9
Koert Sijmons
Introduction
Orthophotos combine the geometric utility of a map with the
extra “real-world image” information provided by a photograph.
The process of creating an Orthophoto depends on the
existence of a reliable DEM for the area being mapped.
The DEM is usually prepared photogrammetrically as well.
A digital photogrammetric workstation generally provide the
Integrated functionality for such tasks as generating:
DEMs, digital Orthophotos, perspective views, and
“fly-throughs” simulations, as well as the extraction of
spatially referenced GIS data in two or three dimensions

9. 10
Koert Sijmons
Introduction

10. 11
Koert Sijmons
60% forward overlap 20 - 30% side lap
Flight strip 1
Flight strip 2

11. 12
Koert Sijmons
Terrain
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
Flight line
Nadir line
(ground trace of aircraft)
Endlap
Photographic coverage along a flight strip
Conditions during exposures
Resulting photography

12. 13
Koert Sijmons
Flight line 1
Flight line 2
Flight line 3
Exposure station
Flight paths (Photo run)

13. 14
Koert Sijmons
Focal length
Focal length
E
O
Exposure station (L)
Negative
d
a
b
c
e
y
x
o Positive
c’
d’
b’
a’
C
D
A
B
e’ o’
Optical axis
Geometric elements of an aerial photo

14. 15
Koert Sijmons
Eustasius
June 1982
2205
Fiducial marks
Message Pad Watch Altimeter
Principle point

15. 16
Koert Sijmons
Photography
central projection

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Koert Sijmons
Central perspective

17. 19
Koert Sijmons
L
Principle
Point
Photo
Map
Orthogonal projection Central Perspective projection
Geometry of Map and Photo
Varied scale
Relief displacement
Result in:
Different size, shape and
location of static objects

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Koert Sijmons
Scale at sea level (0 mtr.):
Scale at 50 mtr. Terrain elevation:
Scale at top volcano (590 mtr.)
0
50
590
S = scale
f = focal length (15.323 cm)
H = flying height (6200 mtr.)
h = local terrain height
1:40.462
1:40.136
1:36.612
Closer to the camera = larger scale
Scale S = H – h
f

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Koert Sijmons
Positive
f
o
h
L
H
O
A
A
”
A’
a
a’
D
d r
Relief displacement Occurs for terrain points
Whose elevation is above
or below the reference
Elevation (at O).
Can be used for height
Calculation (h):
h =
d H
r
d = 2.01 mm.
H (Flying Height) = 1220 mtr.
r = 56.43 mm.
h = 43.45 mtr.

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Koert Sijmons

21. 23
Koert Sijmons
o’
o
Change in positions of
stationary objects caused by a
change in viewing position
Parallax of point A
Pa = xa – x’a
DATUM
y
x
L
y’
x’
L’
a b a’ b’
x’
a
o
xa
b
a
o’
A
B
o’
a’ b’
o
Pa = the parallax of point A
x = The measured x coordinate
of image a on the left photo
a
x’ = the x coordinate of image a’
on the right photo
a

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Koert Sijmons
Y
X
Y
Y
X
O
X
Y
X
O’
a b a’ b’
xa x’
a
Pa = x – x’
a a
Pa = 54.61 – (- 59.45) = 114.06 mm
x
b
x’
b
Pb = x – x’
b b
Pb = 98.67 – (- 27.39) = 126.06 mm
ΔP = 12.00

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Koert Sijmons
H
O
o
O’
A
f
O
A
Y
A
Ax
X
A
h
A
L’
o’
f
B = Air base
H = Flying height
f = Focal length
Pa B
f H - h
A
=
__ _____
Pa = parallax of point A
h = Height above datum
A
H – h =
Bf
Pa
____
A
Also from similar triangles:
LOA
A x
and Loax
H - hA
XA
_____ a
x
= __
f
From which:
L
xa
ax
a
ya a’
a’
x
x’
a
XA
x (H – h )
a A
= _________
f
X
A
= B
x
a
pa
____
YA = B
ya
p
a
____

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Koert Sijmons
X
A
= B
x
a
pa
____ YA = B
ya
p
a
____ Parallax equations
are ground coordinates of a point with respect to an arbitrary
coordinate system whose origin is vertically below the left
exposure station and with positive X in the direction of flight
X and Y
p Is the parallax of the point in question
x and y are the photocoordinates of point a on the left-hand photo
The major assumptions made in the derivation of these
equations are that the photos are truly vertical and that they
are taken from the same flying height.

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Koert Sijmons
Aerial Photo Concept
Digital Orthophotos are generated from the same type of
Aerial photo as conventional hardcopy Orthophotography.
The difference lies in the scanning of the airphoto, converting
the photo to a digital image product that will be manipulated
and processed with a computer.
Cont.

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Koert Sijmons
Aerial Photo Concepts
The relationship between photo scale, scanning resolution
and final scale must be considered.
Final resolution of the Orthophoto product is based on the
application that the Orthophotos are being used for, and also
the limitations of disk space that may be encountered during
the project.
It is not always beneficial to scan an airphoto at the highest
number of dots per inch (DPI), if the application does not
warrant such high resolution.
Cont.

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Koert Sijmons
Aerial Photo Concepts
A simple equation can be used to calculate the scanning
resolution necessary based on the original scale, final
output pixel size and the size of the hardcopy photo.
The equation is: where:
p = output pixel size (cm)
W = photo size (cm)
rs = scanning resolution (DPI)
d = Foot print size (cm)
Cont.
=
______
rs
W p
*
d
*2,54 cm/inch

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Koert Sijmons
Aerial Photo Concepts
Example:
A photo is 9 inches (22.86 cm) across, and covers a ground
distance of 8 Km. The final resolution required is 3 meter
the scanning resolution in dots per inch (DPI) would be:
rs =
800000 cm
* 2.54 cm/inch = 296 DPI
22.86 cm
* 300 cm
_________________
Cont.

29. 31
Koert Sijmons
Aerial Photo Concepts
The scanning resolution can also be determinated from
the photo scale, without having calculate the ground distance.
photo scale is more commonly quoted in the aerial survey
report.
=
______
rs
W p
*
d
From the previous mentioned equation:
we derive:
rs =
d
W * S
*
2.54
p
____
___ =
2.54
____
p
where S = photo scale
Cont.

30. 32
Koert Sijmons
Aerial Photo Concepts
For example, a typical aerial survey might consist of photos
at 1:4,800 scale. The desired output resolution for the
orthophotos is approx. 30 cm. For 22.86 cm airphoto,
a reasonable scanning resolution would be:
rs =
_____
* *
S
2.54
2.54
p
= 4800
_____
30
= 406 DPI

31. 33
Koert Sijmons
Aerial Photo Concepts
The St. Eustasius demonstration dataset was flown at an
average photoscale of 1:40,500
The photos are 22.86 cm x 22.86 cm.
We want a ground resolution of 3m., so we must calculate the
scanning resolution.
rs = S
* *
2.54
p
= 40.500
300
= 342.9 DPI
____ 2.54
____

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Koert Sijmons
Photogrammetric Triangulation
What is it?
- Increasing the density of whatever ground control you have;
called “Control Point Extension”
What does it do?
- Computes coordinate values for any point measured on two
or more images (tie points)
- Computes positions and orientation for each camera station
Cont.

33. 35
Koert Sijmons
Photogrammetric Triangulation
Computes position of
Each camera station
- X,Y and Z (where Z is
flying height)
- Omega ()
- Phi ()
- Kappa ()

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Koert Sijmons
f


Aerial photographs
 f  Deformations
X
Y
Z
X
Y
Z
X
Y
Z

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Koert Sijmons
Photogrammetric Triangulation
How do you do it?
Interior Orientation
Exterior Orientation
Image measurements
Ground Control Points (GCP)

36. 38
Koert Sijmons
Interior Orientation
- Lens focal length
- Origin of co-ordinate system (principal point)
- Radial lens distortion
Objective: Interior Orientation models the
geometry inside the camera
Coordinate systems
- Establish the relationship between positions in the image
(pixel) and the corresponding position in the camera (mm.)
The coordinates of the fuducial points in the camera are
known.

37. 39
Koert Sijmons
left right
Principle point Principle point
Aerial photographs en stereo

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Koert Sijmons
Fiducial marks
Interior Orientation: Image used
during demonstration
Principle point
Image details:
Average photo scale:
Scanning resolution:
Ground resolution per pixel:
1:40,500
300 DPI
(2.54 / 300)*405 =
3.43 m.

39. 41
Koert Sijmons
Interior Orientation
Film: coordinate position are measured in
microns (Image coordinate system)
Digital image: coordinates positions are
measured in pixels (Pixel coordinate system)
Using fiducial points a linear relationship can
be established between film and image
coordinate postions

40. 42
Koert Sijmons
1: 106.004
2: -105.999
3: -106.004
4: 106.002
X and Y coordenates of
the fuducial points
-106.008
-105.998
106.005
106.002
-X
1
2
3 4
Principal point

41. 43
Koert Sijmons
Column
X
Y
Relation between
Pixel coordinates
(Line,Column)
and
Image coordinates
(in the camera in millimeters)
(x,y)

42. 44
Koert Sijmons
0
Col pixel
0
Lin pixel
0
A
Col pixel
A
Lin pixel
A
Pixel coordinate system
Image coordinate system (film)
Colum
0,0

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Koert Sijmons
Interior Orientation
- Camera calibration information
- Obtained from “camera calibration certificate”
- Calibration elements:
- Focal Length
- Fiducial coordinates
- Principal point location
- Radial lens distortion

44. 46
Koert Sijmons
Exterior Orientation
 Objective: Establishing a relationship between the digital image
(pixel) co-ordinate system and the real world (latitude and longitude)
co-ordinate system
 Ground Control Points
 Visually identifiable
 Preferably on multiple images
 Larger image blocks need less control per image
 Need to be well distributed in X,Y and Z
 Ground control types:
– Full (X,Y,Z)
– Horizontal (X,Y)
– Vertical (Z)

45. 47
Koert Sijmons
O: Projection centre
A: Point on the ground
a: Image of A on the
photograph
from similar triangles:
O (Uo, Vo, Wo)
colinearity condition
a (Ua, Va, Wa)
A (UA, VA, WA)





































o
a
o
a
o
a
a
o
A
o
A
o
A
a
o
a
o
A
o
a
o
A
o
a
o
A
W
W
V
V
U
U
s
W
W
V
V
U
U
:
or
s
W
W
W
W
V
V
V
V
U
U
U
U
UA -Uo
Ua -Uo
Wo -Wa
Wo -WA

46. 48
Koert Sijmons
angles   

Z
(Kappa)
 X
(Omega)

Y
(Phi)

47. 49
Koert Sijmons
What do these letters mean?
Position of a point in the image: x, y
Position of the corresponding terrain point: U, V, W
Known after interior orientation: xPP, yPP , c
From Exterior orientation: Uo, Vo , Wo,
r11, r12, r13, r21, r22, r23, r31, r32, r33 (computed from of  ,  , )
For each point in the terrain its position in the image
can be computed from these two equations. (Different
for the left and the right image.)
PP
o
33
o
32
o
31
o
23
o
22
o
21
PP
o
33
o
32
o
31
o
13
o
12
o
11
y
)
W
W
(
r
)
V
V
(
r
)
U
U
(
r
)
W
W
(
r
)
V
V
(
r
)
U
U
(
r
c
y
x
)
W
W
(
r
)
V
V
(
r
)
U
U
(
r
)
W
W
(
r
)
V
V
(
r
)
U
U
(
r
c
x









































48. 50
Koert Sijmons
Resampling one pixel
Center of the orthophoto-
pixel in the original image
“Nearest neighbour”:
the value of this pixel
“Bilinear”: interpolated
between these 4
pixelcenters

49. 51
Koert Sijmons
Example St Eustatius: How to accurately
transfer interpretation from photo to map!!!
Shoreline from topographical map Aerial photo
?

50. 52
Koert Sijmons
Available:
2 digital stereo Aerial Photos at scale 1:40,000
of the Island of Sint Eustasius (Caribbean Sea)
Left Right

51. 53
Koert Sijmons
Available: Topographic map at
scale:1:10,000 of St. Eustasius

52. 54
Koert Sijmons

53. 55
Koert Sijmons
Software: ERDAS IMAGINE 8.6

54. 57
Koert Sijmons
Create New Block File
Working Directory
Type: Block File name
Sint_eustasius.blk

55. 58
Koert Sijmons
Setup of Geometric Model
Frame Camera

56. 59
Koert Sijmons
Select Projection
Set Projection

57. 60
Koert Sijmons
Select Projection
UTM Zone 20 (Range 66W-60W)

58. 61
Koert Sijmons
Select Spheroid Name

59. 62
Koert Sijmons

60. 63
Koert Sijmons
Set Horizontal/Vertical Units in:
Meters

61. 64
Koert Sijmons
Set Fly Height in meters
V 6200

62. 65
Koert Sijmons
Loading images
Load left and right images
From your working directory

63. 66
Koert Sijmons
Loading Left and Right image
d:/het mooie eiland st eustasius/left img
d:/het mooie eiland st eustasius/right img

64. 67
Koert Sijmons
Set up for Interior Orientation

65. 68
Koert Sijmons
Set Focal Length

66. 69
Koert Sijmons
Type: 4

67. 70
Koert Sijmons
Indicating: left.img
Interior orientation for left image

68. 71
Koert Sijmons
Load left image
1st Fiducial point Jumps automatically to next fiducial point

69. 72
Koert Sijmons
2753.202 2655.394
1st fiducial point
Set fiducial mark
Coordinades 1st. Fiducial point

70. 75
Koert Sijmons
Measure 2nd fiducial point, as
done for point 1

71. 76
Koert Sijmons
Measure 3rd fiducial point, as
done for point 1 and 2

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Koert Sijmons
Measure 4th fiducial point, as
done for point 1, 2 and 3

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Koert Sijmons
Should be less than 1 pixel
All 4 fiducial points are measured

74. 79
Koert Sijmons
Make adjustments for the fiducial points in
order to get less than 1 pixel RMSE

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Koert Sijmons
Green infill indicates, that Interior orientation
has been carried out for left.image

76. 81
Koert Sijmons
Indicating: left.img
Indicating: right.img

77. 82
Koert Sijmons
Interior Orientation for right image

78. 83
Koert Sijmons
Measure the 4 fiducial points for the
Right image, starting with point 1,as
done for the Left image

79. 84
Koert Sijmons
The measurement for the 4 fudical points
are completed with less then 1 pixel RMSE

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Koert Sijmons
Both images have their interior
orientation (green)
Set Ground Control
Points (GCPs)

81. 86
Koert Sijmons
2
3
4
5
6
7 8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
1
Control Points
X = 502865
Y = 1932070
Z = 107 m.
Coordinates:
1

82. 87
Koert Sijmons
1
1
Control Point in map with corresponding point in left image

83. 88
Koert Sijmons
32
1931430
502400
7
20
1935180
502265
6
55
1933750
503780
5
45
1932060
502135
4
52
1933430
502775
3
23
1932850
501610
2
107
1932070
502865
1
Z Value
Y Coordinates
X Coordinates
Pnt nr.

84. 89
Koert Sijmons
0
1936998
502450
14
0
1934460
503515
13
20
1931880
506030
12
35
1930600
504340
11
10
1930820
505190
10
62
1933420
505250
9
46
1930760
503260
8
Z value
Y coord.
X coord.
Pnt. Nr.

85. 90
Koert Sijmons
0
1934310
500570
17
0
1937315
500730
16
0
1936998
501480
15
Z value
Y coord.
X coord.
Pnt. Nr.

86. 91
Koert Sijmons
Measuring Ground Control Points
(GCP’s)
Set Ground Control
Points (GCPs)

87. 92
Koert Sijmons

88. 93
Koert Sijmons
Add 1st. Ground
Control Point (GCP)

89. 94
Koert Sijmons
1
1
Set register mark to point 1 in the right
image, according to the position of the
Ground Control Point in the map
1
1
Set register mark to point 1 in the left image,
according to the position of the Ground
Control Point in the map
502865.000 1932070.000 107.000
Register Ground
Control Point
Type in: X-coordinates: 502865.000
Y-coordinates: 1932070.000
Z-value: 107.000
for Point 1 Click: Enter
Register Ground
Control Point

90. 95
Koert Sijmons
2
2
2
2
Set register mark to point 2 in the right
image, according to the position of the
control point in the map
Set register mark to point 2 in the left image,
according to the position of the control point
in the map
501610.000 1932850.000 23.000
Register Ground
Control Point
Register Ground
Control Point
Type in: X-coordinates: 501610.000
Y-coordinates: 1932850.000
Z-value: 23.000
for Point 2 Click: Enter

91. 96
Koert Sijmons
3
3
3
3
Set register mark to point 3 in the right
image, according to the position of the
control point in the map
Set register mark to point 3 in the left image,
according to the position of the control point
in the map
502775.000 1933430.000 52.000
Type in: X-coordinates: 502775.000
Y-coordinates: 1933430.000
Z-value: 52.000
for Point 3 Click: Enter
Register Ground
Control Point
Register Ground
Control Point

92. 97
Koert Sijmons
4
4
Set register mark to point 4 in the left image,
according to the position of the control point
in the map
Automatically display the
Image positions of Control
Points on the overlap areas
of 2 images. This capability
Is enabled when 3 or more
Control Points have been
measured
4
4
Set register mark to point 4 in the right
image, according to the position of the
control point in the map
Type in: X-coordinates: 502135.000
Y-coordinates: 1932060.000
Z-value: 45.000
for Point 4 Click: Enter
502135.000 1932060.000 45.000
Register Ground
Control Point
Register Ground
Control Point

93. 98
Koert Sijmons
Continue the same
Procedure for the Remaining Ground
Control Points according to map and
Coordinate list

94. 99
Koert Sijmons
Click right button
Click right button
Control
Full
Change type “none” into “Full”
and
Change “Usage” into “Control
For all GCP’s

95. 10
Koert Sijmons
Click: the automatic Tie
Point Collection Properties
icon

96. 10
Koert Sijmons
50
Check to confirm that the
Image Layer Used for
Computation is set to 1
Check to confirm that the
Initial Type radio button is
set to Exterior/Header/GCP
Check to confirm that the
Keep All Points
checkbox is off (unchecked)
Click in the Intended Number
of Points Per Image field and
type: 50, then press Enter
Click the Run button
1
Check to confirm that the
Image Used radio button is
set to All available

97. 10
Koert Sijmons
Click in the > column of
Point Ids to see where tie points
were placed. Tie points outside
the land area have to be deleted.
If the tie points needs to be
Adjusted, click the Select Point
icon and adjusted it in the
Detail View
Save
Close
Activate Point
48

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Triangulation Properties

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The X and Y deviations of the
Coordinates are within the tolerance
of 1 pixel.
The image was scanned with a Ground
Resolution of 3 meter
The height value accuracy is
Within 0.64 meter
Save as…

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ASCII Text File (*.txt))
St_Eustasius

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Exterior orientation
has been completed

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Delete Tie Points with
negative height values
Activate Point
45, 46, 47
After Triangulation all
Tie Points have
X, Y, Z References

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DTM Extraction

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Select:
Single DTM Mosaic
File Chooser

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DTM_ St.Eustasius
OK

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DTM_ St. Eustasius
30.000000 30.000000
Type: 30 meters
V
Make Pixels square

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DTM processing

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DEM is calculated
Save…

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dem_st. eustasius
OK

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Orthophoto generating

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Orthophoto Resampling
DEM
3.000000 3.000000
DEM.IMG

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Orthophoto generated

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Orthophoto

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DEM Orthophoto

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Topographic map Orthophoto

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