This document provides an introduction to cell structure and function and biochemistry. It defines biochemistry as the study of biological processes at the cellular and molecular level. The key components of cells are described as are the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The major classes of biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids are introduced along with some of their functions. Common biochemical reactions like oxidation-reduction are also outlined. Maintaining the highly organized structure of cells requires energy from biochemical reactions, transport across membranes, organized cell movement, and waste removal.
What is biochemistry?
Biochemistry explores chemical processes related to living organisms. It is a laboratory-based science combining biology and chemistry.
Biochemists study the structure, composition, and chemical reactions of substances in living systems and, in turn, their functions and ways to control them. Biochemistry emerged as a separate discipline when scientists combined biology with organic, inorganic, and physical chemistry. They began to study areas such as:
How living things get energy from food
The chemical basis of heredity
What fundamental changes occur in disease
Biochemistry includes the sciences of molecular biology, immunochemistry, and neurochemistry, as well as bioinorganic, bioorganic, and biophysical chemistry.
What do biochemists do?
Biochemists interact with scientists from a wide variety of other disciplines, usually on problems that are a very small piece of a very large and complex system.
Biochemists in industry are interested in specific applications that will lead to marketable products
Biochemists in academia or government labs conduct more basic and less applied research
Where is biochemistry used?
Biochemistry has obvious applications in medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine. Other applications include:
Food Science
Biochemists determine the chemical composition of foods, research ways to develop abundant and inexpensive sources of nutritious foods, develop methods to extract nutrients from waste products, and/or invent ways to prolong the shelf life of food products.
Agriculture
Biochemists study the interaction of herbicides/insecticides with plants and pests. They examine the structure–activity relationships of compounds, determine their ability to inhibit growth, and evaluate the toxicological effects on surrounding life.
Pharmacology, Physiology, Microbiology, Toxicology, and Clinical Chemistry
Biochemists investigate the mechanisms of drug actions; engage in viral research; conduct research pertaining to organ function; or use chemical concepts, procedures, and techniques to study the diagnosis and therapy of disease and the assessment of health.
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
What is biochemistry?
Biochemistry explores chemical processes related to living organisms. It is a laboratory-based science combining biology and chemistry.
Biochemists study the structure, composition, and chemical reactions of substances in living systems and, in turn, their functions and ways to control them. Biochemistry emerged as a separate discipline when scientists combined biology with organic, inorganic, and physical chemistry. They began to study areas such as:
How living things get energy from food
The chemical basis of heredity
What fundamental changes occur in disease
Biochemistry includes the sciences of molecular biology, immunochemistry, and neurochemistry, as well as bioinorganic, bioorganic, and biophysical chemistry.
What do biochemists do?
Biochemists interact with scientists from a wide variety of other disciplines, usually on problems that are a very small piece of a very large and complex system.
Biochemists in industry are interested in specific applications that will lead to marketable products
Biochemists in academia or government labs conduct more basic and less applied research
Where is biochemistry used?
Biochemistry has obvious applications in medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine. Other applications include:
Food Science
Biochemists determine the chemical composition of foods, research ways to develop abundant and inexpensive sources of nutritious foods, develop methods to extract nutrients from waste products, and/or invent ways to prolong the shelf life of food products.
Agriculture
Biochemists study the interaction of herbicides/insecticides with plants and pests. They examine the structure–activity relationships of compounds, determine their ability to inhibit growth, and evaluate the toxicological effects on surrounding life.
Pharmacology, Physiology, Microbiology, Toxicology, and Clinical Chemistry
Biochemists investigate the mechanisms of drug actions; engage in viral research; conduct research pertaining to organ function; or use chemical concepts, procedures, and techniques to study the diagnosis and therapy of disease and the assessment of health.
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.[1] Biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life.
cell organelles, nucleus, mitochondria, plasma memebrane,ribosomes, golgi bodies, lysosomes, chloroplast
(helpfull for B.Sc. students as well as competitions tests
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.[1] Biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life.
cell organelles, nucleus, mitochondria, plasma memebrane,ribosomes, golgi bodies, lysosomes, chloroplast
(helpfull for B.Sc. students as well as competitions tests
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
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Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
3. Lecture Objectives
✓Know what biochemistry is and its principle.
✓Know the components of a cell and its major types
of bio-molecules.
✓Understand how the role of cell organisation and
different types of chemical reactions involved in
maintaining high degree of internal order.
4. What is Biochemistry
●
● Biochemistry is the application of chemistry to the
study of biological processes at the cellular and
molecular level.
It emerged as a distinct discipline around the
beginning of the 20th century when scientists
combined chemistry, physiology and biology to
investigate the chemistry of living systems by:
A. Studying the structure and behavior of the complex
molecules found in biological material and
B. the ways these molecules interact to form cells, tissues and
whole organism
5. Principles of Biochemistry
●Cells (basic structural units of living organisms) are highly
organized and constant source of energy is required to maintain
the ordered state.
● Living processes contains thousands of chemical rxns. Precise
regulation and integration of these rxns are required to maintain
life
●Certain important rxns E.g. Glycolysis is found in almost all
organisms.
●All organisms use the same type of molecules: CHO, proteins,
lipids & nucleic acids.
●Instructions for growth, reproduction and developments for
each organism is encoded in their DNA
6. Cells
●Basic building blocks of life
●Smallest living unit of an organism
●Grow, reproduce, use energy, adapt, respond to their environment
●Many cannot be seen with the naked eye
●A cell may be an entire organism or it may be one of billions of
cells that make up the organism
●Basis Types of Cells
7. Cells May be Prokaryotic or
Eukaryotic
●Prokaryotes include bacteria & lack a nucleus or membrane-bound
structures called organelles
●Eukaryotes include most other cells & have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles (plants, fungi, & animals)
8. Nucleoid region contains the DNA
•Cell membrane & cell wall
•Contain ribosomes (no membrane)
to make proteins in
their cytoplasm
Contain 3 basic cell structures:
• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with organelles
10. Characteristic Bio-membranes and Organelles
Plasma Membrane
A lipid/protein/carbohydrate complex, providing a barrier and
containing transport and signaling systems.
Nucleus
Double membrane surrounding the chromosomes and the nucleolus.
Pores allow specific communication with the cytoplasm. The
nucleolus is a site for synthesis of RNA making up the ribosome
Mitochondrion
Surrounded by a double membrane with a series of folds
called cristae. Functions in energy production through metabolism.
Contains its own DNA, and is believed to have originated as a
captured bacterium.
Chloroplasts (plastids)
Surrounded by a double membrane, containing stacked thylakoid
membranes. Responsible for photosynthesis, the trapping of light
energy for the synthesis of sugars. Contains DNA, and like
mitochondria is believed to have originated as a captured
bacterium.
11. .
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the
cell. Covered with ribosomes (causing the "rough" appearance) which
are in the process of synthesizing proteins for secretion or
localization in membranes.
Ribosomes
Protein and RNA complex responsible for protein synthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the
cell. A site for synthesis and metabolism of lipids. Also contains
enzymes for detoxifying chemicals including drugs and pesticides.
Golgi apparatus
A series of stacked membranes. Vesicles (small membrane
surrounded bags) carry materials from the RER to the Golgi
apparatus. Vesicles move between the stacks while the proteins are
"processed" to a mature form. Vesicles then carry newly formed
membrane and secreted proteins to their final destinations including
secretion or membrane localization.
Lysosymes
A membrane bound organelle that is responsible for degrading
proteins and membranes in the cell, and also helps degrade materials
ingested by the cell.
13. Bio-molecules
●Just like cells are building blocks of tissues likewise molecules are
building blocks of cells.
●Animal and plant cells contain approximately 10, 000 kinds of
molecules (bio-molecules)
●Water constitutes 50-95% of cells content by weight.
●Ions like Na+, K+ and Ca+ may account for another 1%
●Almost all other kinds of bio-molecules are organic (C, H, N, O, P, S)
●Infinite variety of molecules contain C.
● Most bio-molecules considered to be derived from hydrocarbons.
●The chemical properties of organic bio-molecules are determined by
their functional groups. Most bio-molecules have more than one.
14. Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
●1. Amino acids:
• Building blocks of proteins.
• 20 commonly occurring.
• Contains amino group and carboxyl group
function groups (behavioral properties)
• R Group (side chains) determines the
chemical properties of each amino acids.
• Also determines how the protein folds and
its biological function.
• Individual amino acids in protein connected
by peptide bond.
• Functions as transport proteins, structural
proteins, enzymes, antibodies, cell
receptors.
15. Sugars
● Carbohydrates most abundant organic molecule
found in nature.
● Initially synthesized in plants from a complex
series of reactions involving photosynthesis.
●Basic unit is monosaccharides.
●Monosaccharides can form larger molecules e.g.
glycogen, plant starch or cellulose.
Functions
●Store energy in the form of starch (photosynthesis in
plants) or glycogen (in animals and humans).
●Provide energy through metabolism pathways and cycles.
●Supply carbon for synthesis of other compounds.
●Form structural components in cells and tissues.
●Intercellular communications
16. Fatty acids
●Are monocarboxylic acid contains even number C atoms
●Two types: saturated (C-C sb) and unsaturated (C-C db)
●Fatty acids are components of several lipid molecules.
●E,g. of lipids are triacylglycerol, streiods (cholestrol, sex
hormones), fat soluble vitamins.
Functions
●Storage of energy in the form of fat
●Membrane structures
●Insulation (thermal blanket)
●Synthesis of hormones
17. Biochemical Reactions
● Metabolism: total sum of the chemical reaction happening in a
living organism (highly coordinated and purposeful activity)
a. Anabolism- energy requiring biosynthetic pathways
b. Catabolism- degradation of fuel molecules and the production of
energy for cellular function
● All reactions are catalyzed by enzymes
● The primary functions of metabolism are:
a. acquisition & utilization of energy
b. Synthesis of molecules needed for cell structure and
functioning (i.e. proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, & CHO
c. Removal of waste products
18. Even though thousands of rxns sound very large
and complex in a tiny cell:
●The types of rxn are small
●Mechanisms of biochemical rxns are simple
●Reactions of central importance (for energy
production & synthesis and degradation of major cell
components) are relatively few in number
19. Frequent reaction encountered in biochemical
processes
1. Nucleophilic Substitution
●One atom of group substituted for another
2. Elimination Reactions
●Double bond is formed when atoms in a molecule is removed
3. Addition Reactions:
●Two molecules combine to form a single product.
●A. Hydration Reactions
●Water added to alkene > alcohol (common addition rxn)
20. 4. Isomerization Reactions.
● Involve intramolecular shift of atoms or groups
5. Oxidation-Reduction (redox) Reactions
●Occur when there is a transfer of e- from a donor to
an electron acceptor
6. Hydrolysis reactions
●Cleavage of double bond by water.
21. Energy for Cells
●Living cells are inherently unstable.
●Constant flow of energy prevents them from becoming
disorganized.
●Cells obtains energy mainly by the oxidation of bio-
molecules (e- transferred from 1 molecule to another
and in doing so they lose energy)
●This energy captured by cells & used to maintain
highly organized cellular structure and functions
22. How do complex structure of cells maintain high internal order?
1. Synthesis of bio-molecules
2. Transport Across Membranes
- Cell membranes regulate the passage of ions and molecules
from one compartment to another.
3. Cell Movement
- Organised movement- most obvious characteristics of living
cells. The intricate and coordinated activities required to
sustain life require the movement of cell components.
4. Waste Removal
- Animal cells convert food molecules into CO2, H20 & NH3. If
these not disposed properly can be toxic.