the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physico-chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms.
the processes and substances with which the science of biochemistry is concerned.
The science concerned with the materials and various processes of life related to chemical basis of life.
The science concerned with the various molecules that occur in living cells and organisms and with their chemical reaction
The first presentation in the ubio exclusive series ‘Biology for Computer Engineers’, gave an introduction to biochemistry basics and covered protein biochemistry. The second presentation in the series focuses on cells, which are the basic life forms. It provides short introduction to biochemistry of nucleic acids and lipids and explains the concept of ‘life’ and its evolution. It then goes on to discuss biology of the cell, especially cell structure and cell functions.
As in the previous presentation, the focus of this cell biology ppt is on highlighting the thread of common logic that runs beneath the enormous diversity of life forms, while giving an overview of biochemistry and cell biology. Future editions of our molecular biology articles will feature genetic biotechnology, bioinformatics and computational biology.
What is biochemistry?
Biochemistry explores chemical processes related to living organisms. It is a laboratory-based science combining biology and chemistry.
Biochemists study the structure, composition, and chemical reactions of substances in living systems and, in turn, their functions and ways to control them. Biochemistry emerged as a separate discipline when scientists combined biology with organic, inorganic, and physical chemistry. They began to study areas such as:
How living things get energy from food
The chemical basis of heredity
What fundamental changes occur in disease
Biochemistry includes the sciences of molecular biology, immunochemistry, and neurochemistry, as well as bioinorganic, bioorganic, and biophysical chemistry.
What do biochemists do?
Biochemists interact with scientists from a wide variety of other disciplines, usually on problems that are a very small piece of a very large and complex system.
Biochemists in industry are interested in specific applications that will lead to marketable products
Biochemists in academia or government labs conduct more basic and less applied research
Where is biochemistry used?
Biochemistry has obvious applications in medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine. Other applications include:
Food Science
Biochemists determine the chemical composition of foods, research ways to develop abundant and inexpensive sources of nutritious foods, develop methods to extract nutrients from waste products, and/or invent ways to prolong the shelf life of food products.
Agriculture
Biochemists study the interaction of herbicides/insecticides with plants and pests. They examine the structure–activity relationships of compounds, determine their ability to inhibit growth, and evaluate the toxicological effects on surrounding life.
Pharmacology, Physiology, Microbiology, Toxicology, and Clinical Chemistry
Biochemists investigate the mechanisms of drug actions; engage in viral research; conduct research pertaining to organ function; or use chemical concepts, procedures, and techniques to study the diagnosis and therapy of disease and the assessment of health.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.
The science concerned with the materials and various processes of life related to chemical basis of life.
The science concerned with the various molecules that occur in living cells and organisms and with their chemical reaction
The first presentation in the ubio exclusive series ‘Biology for Computer Engineers’, gave an introduction to biochemistry basics and covered protein biochemistry. The second presentation in the series focuses on cells, which are the basic life forms. It provides short introduction to biochemistry of nucleic acids and lipids and explains the concept of ‘life’ and its evolution. It then goes on to discuss biology of the cell, especially cell structure and cell functions.
As in the previous presentation, the focus of this cell biology ppt is on highlighting the thread of common logic that runs beneath the enormous diversity of life forms, while giving an overview of biochemistry and cell biology. Future editions of our molecular biology articles will feature genetic biotechnology, bioinformatics and computational biology.
What is biochemistry?
Biochemistry explores chemical processes related to living organisms. It is a laboratory-based science combining biology and chemistry.
Biochemists study the structure, composition, and chemical reactions of substances in living systems and, in turn, their functions and ways to control them. Biochemistry emerged as a separate discipline when scientists combined biology with organic, inorganic, and physical chemistry. They began to study areas such as:
How living things get energy from food
The chemical basis of heredity
What fundamental changes occur in disease
Biochemistry includes the sciences of molecular biology, immunochemistry, and neurochemistry, as well as bioinorganic, bioorganic, and biophysical chemistry.
What do biochemists do?
Biochemists interact with scientists from a wide variety of other disciplines, usually on problems that are a very small piece of a very large and complex system.
Biochemists in industry are interested in specific applications that will lead to marketable products
Biochemists in academia or government labs conduct more basic and less applied research
Where is biochemistry used?
Biochemistry has obvious applications in medicine, dentistry, and veterinary medicine. Other applications include:
Food Science
Biochemists determine the chemical composition of foods, research ways to develop abundant and inexpensive sources of nutritious foods, develop methods to extract nutrients from waste products, and/or invent ways to prolong the shelf life of food products.
Agriculture
Biochemists study the interaction of herbicides/insecticides with plants and pests. They examine the structure–activity relationships of compounds, determine their ability to inhibit growth, and evaluate the toxicological effects on surrounding life.
Pharmacology, Physiology, Microbiology, Toxicology, and Clinical Chemistry
Biochemists investigate the mechanisms of drug actions; engage in viral research; conduct research pertaining to organ function; or use chemical concepts, procedures, and techniques to study the diagnosis and therapy of disease and the assessment of health.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms. Biochemists focus heavily on the role, function, and structure of biomolecules. The study of the chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules are examples of biochemistry.
“Foundations of Biochemistry” is a process‐oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) style workbook for use in upper division Biochemistry courses. The book contains 36 exercises, which could be used for an almost‐exclusively POGIL one semester course or supplemented with lectures, case studies, or student presentations for a full year course. It is intended as a supplement to a textbook, and the very modest price makes it a very cost‐effective educational resource.
ecplain the cell and its functionsSolutionCellThe cell is th.pdfarishmarketing21
ecplain the cell and its functions
Solution
Cell
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A
cell is the smallest working unit of all living organisms on our planet earth, which is capable of
performing life functioning. They are often called the building blocks of our life. The study of
cells is called cell biology.
The term cell was first observed and identified by an English physicist Robert Hook in the year
1665. There were many theories developed for cell. Later in the year 1839 a two German
scientists Schwann and Schleiden provided few basic principles of cell.
Cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane which contains many biomolecules such
as proteins and nucleic acids. The organisms can be classified as unicellular (consists single cell:
bacteria-prokaryotes) or multicellular (including plants and animals-Eukaryotes). The number of
cells in plants and animals varies from species to species. Therefore human contains more than
10 trillion cells.
There are many cells in an individual, which performs several functions throughout the life. The
size and the shape of the cell range from millimeter to microns, which are generally based on the
type of function that it performs. A cell generally varies in their shapes. A few cells are in
spherical, rod, flat, concave, curved, rectangular and oval shaped. Most of the plant and animal
cells are visible only under microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometers.
The structure and function of cells
The basic structure of all cells, whether prokaryotes and eukaryotes are the same. All cells have
an outer layer called plasma membrane. The plasma membrane holds the cell together and allows
the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
The interior of both kinds of cells is known as cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm eukaryotes are
embedded with cellular organelles but in prokaryotes contain no organelles. Finally, both types
of cells contain small structures called ribosomes. These are the sites within the cells where
proteins are produced.
Cell wall: It helps protecting the plasma membrane and plays an important role in protecting the
cells.
Cell membrane: A thin, flexible layer of plant or animal tissue that covers, lines, separates or
holds together, or connects parts of an organism
Cytoplasm: It is a membrane which protects the cell by keeping cells organelles separates from
each other. This helps to keep the cell in stable. Cytoplasm is the major site that many
biochemical reactions take place.
Nucleus: They are membrane bound organelles which are found in many eukaryotes. It is the
very important organelle of a cell as it controls the complete activity of a cell and also plays a
vital role in reproduction
Nuclear membrane: These bilayer membranes which protects the nucleus by surrounding around
it and acts as a barrier between the barrier nucleus and other organelles in the cell
Nucleolus: It is found inside the nucleus.
The term isolation refers to the separation of a strain from a natural, mixed population of living microbes, as present in the environment. It becomes necessary to maintain the viability and purity of the microorganism by keeping the pure culture free from contamination.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
3. Lecture Objectives
Know what biochemistry is and its principle.
Know the components of a cell and its major types
of bio-molecules.
Understand how the role of cell organisation and
different types of chemical reactions involved in
maintaining high degree of internal order.
4. What is Biochemistry
Biochemistry is the application of chemistry to the
study of biological processes at the cellular and
molecular level.
It emerged as a distinct discipline around the
beginning of the 20th century when scientists
combined chemistry, physiology and biology to
investigate the chemistry of living systems by:
A. Studying the structure and behavior of the complex
molecules found in biological material and
B. the ways these molecules interact to form cells, tissues and
whole organism
5. Principles of Biochemistry
Cells (basic structural units of living organisms) are highly
organized and constant source of energy is required to maintain
the ordered state.
Living processes contains thousands of chemical rxns. Precise
regulation and integration of these rxns are required to maintain
life
Certain important rxns E.g. Glycolysis is found in almost all
organisms.
All organisms use the same type of molecules: CHO, proteins,
lipids & nucleic acids.
Instructions for growth, reproduction and developments for
each organism is encoded in their DNA
6. Cells
Basic building blocks of life
Smallest living unit of an organism
Grow, reproduce, use energy, adapt, respond to their environment
Many cannot be seen with the naked eye
A cell may be an entire organism or it may be one of billions of
cells that make up the organism
Basis Types of Cells
7. Cells May be Prokaryotic or
Eukaryotic
Prokaryotes include bacteria & lack a nucleus or membrane-bound
structures called organelles
Eukaryotes include most other cells & have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles (plants, fungi, & animals)
8. Nucleoid region contains the DNA
•Cell membrane & cell wall
• Contain ribosomes (no membrane)
to make proteins in
their cytoplasm
Contain 3 basic cell structures:
• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with organelles
10. Characteristic Bio-membranes and Organelles
Mitochondrion
Surrounded by a double membrane with a series of folds
called cristae. Functions in energy production through metabolism.
Contains its own DNA, and is believed to have originated as a
captured bacterium.
Plasma Membrane
A lipid/protein/carbohydrate complex, providing a barrier and
containing transport and signaling systems.
Nucleus
Double membrane surrounding the chromosomes and the nucleolus.
Pores allow specific communication with the cytoplasm. The
nucleolus is a site for synthesis of RNA making up the ribosome
Chloroplasts (plastids)
Surrounded by a double membrane, containing stacked thylakoid
membranes. Responsible for photosynthesis, the trapping of light
energy for the synthesis of sugars. Contains DNA, and like
mitochondria is believed to have originated as a captured
bacterium.
11. .
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the
cell. Covered with ribosomes (causing the "rough" appearance) which
are in the process of synthesizing proteins for secretion or
localization in membranes.
Ribosomes
Protein and RNA complex responsible for protein synthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
A network of interconnected membranes forming channels within the
cell. A site for synthesis and metabolism of lipids. Also contains
enzymes for detoxifying chemicals including drugs and pesticides.
Golgi apparatus
A series of stacked membranes. Vesicles (small membrane
surrounded bags) carry materials from the RER to the Golgi
apparatus. Vesicles move between the stacks while the proteins are
"processed" to a mature form. Vesicles then carry newly formed
membrane and secreted proteins to their final destinations including
secretion or membrane localization.
Lysosymes
A membrane bound organelle that is responsible for degrading
proteins and membranes in the cell, and also helps degrade materials
ingested by the cell.
13. Bio-molecules
Just like cells are building blocks of tissues likewise molecules are
building blocks of cells.
Animal and plant cells contain approximately 10, 000 kinds of
molecules (bio-molecules)
Water constitutes 50-95% of cells content by weight.
Ions like Na+, K+ and Ca+ may account for another 1%
Almost all other kinds of bio-molecules are organic (C, H, N, O, P, S)
Infinite variety of molecules contain C.
Most bio-molecules considered to be derived from hydrocarbons.
The chemical properties of organic bio-molecules are determined by
their functional groups. Most bio-molecules have more than one.
14. Major Classes of small Bio-molecules
1. Amino acids:
• Building blocks of proteins.
• 20 commonly occurring.
• Contains amino group and carboxyl group
function groups (behavioral properties)
• R Group (side chains) determines the
chemical properties of each amino acids.
• Also determines how the protein folds and
its biological function.
• Individual amino acids in protein connected
by peptide bond.
• Functions as transport proteins, structural
proteins, enzymes, antibodies, cell
receptors.
15. Sugars
Carbohydrates most abundant organic molecule
found in nature.
Initially synthesized in plants from a complex series
of reactions involving photosynthesis.
Basic unit is monosaccharides.
Monosaccharides can form larger molecules e.g.
glycogen, plant starch or cellulose.
Functions
Store energy in the form of starch (photosynthesis in
plants) or glycogen (in animals and humans).
Provide energy through metabolism pathways and cycles.
Supply carbon for synthesis of other compounds.
Form structural components in cells and tissues.
Intercellular communications
16. Fatty acids
Are monocarboxylic acid contains even number C atoms
Two types: saturated (C-C sb) and unsaturated (C-C db)
Fatty acids are components of several lipid molecules.
E,g. of lipids are triacylglycerol, streiods (cholestrol, sex
hormones), fat soluble vitamins.
Functions
Storage of energy in the form of fat
Membrane structures
Insulation (thermal blanket)
Synthesis of hormones
17. Biochemical Reactions
Metabolism: total sum of the chemical reaction happening in a
living organism (highly coordinated and purposeful activity)
a. Anabolism- energy requiring biosynthetic pathways
b. Catabolism- degradation of fuel molecules and the production of
energy for cellular function
All reactions are catalyzed by enzymes
The primary functions of metabolism are:
a. acquisition & utilization of energy
b. Synthesis of molecules needed for cell structure and
functioning (i.e. proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, & CHO
c. Removal of waste products
18. Even though thousands of rxns sound very large
and complex in a tiny cell:
The types of rxn are small
Mechanisms o biochemical rxns are simple
Reactions of central importance (for energy
production & synthesis and degradation of major cell
components) are relatively few in number
19. Frequent reaction encountered in biochemical
processes
1. Nucleophilic Substitution
One atom of group substituted for another
2. Elimination Reactions
Double bond is formed when atoms in a molecule is removed
3. Addition Reactions:
Two molecules combine to form a single product.
A. Hydration Reactions
Water added to alkene > alcohol (common addition rxn)
20. 4. Isomerization Reactions.
Involve intramolecular shift of atoms or groups
5. Oxidation-Reduction (redox) Reactions
Occur when there is a transfer of e- from a donor to
an electron acceptor
6. Hydrolysis reactions
Cleavage of double bond by water.
21. Energy for Cells
Living cells are inherently unstable.
Constant flow of energy prevents them from becoming
disorganized.
Cells obtains energy mainly by the oxidation of bio-
molecules (e- transferred from 1 molecule to another
and in doing so they lose energy)
This energy captured by cells & used to maintain
highly organized cellular structure and functions
22. How do complex structure of cells maintain high internal order?
1. Synthesis of bio-molecules
2. Transport Across Membranes
- Cell membranes regulate the passage of ions and molecules
from one compartment to another.
3. Cell Movement
- Organised movement- most obvious characteristics of living
cells. The intricate and coordinated activities required to
sustain life require the movement of cell components.
4. Waste Removal
- Animal cells convert food molecules into CO2, H20 & NH3. If
these not disposed properly can be toxic.
