Inflammation is the body's protective response to injury or infection that involves increased blood flow, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function. The document outlines the general considerations of inflammation including its definition, causes, and cardinal signs. It then discusses the major events of acute inflammation including vascular changes, exudation of fluid, and recruitment and activation of leukocytes. Finally, it classifies inflammation into acute and chronic types and further classifies acute inflammation based on the type of exudate produced (serous, fibrinous, suppurative, hemorrhagic).
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
CAUSES OF INFLAMMATION
CLASSIFICATION
ACUTE INFLAMMATION
CHEMICAL MEDIATORS OF INFLAMMATION
OUTCOMES OF ACUTE INFLAMMATION
CHRONIC INFLAMMATION
INFLAMMATORY DISEASES
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
CAUSES OF INFLAMMATION
CLASSIFICATION
ACUTE INFLAMMATION
CHEMICAL MEDIATORS OF INFLAMMATION
OUTCOMES OF ACUTE INFLAMMATION
CHRONIC INFLAMMATION
INFLAMMATORY DISEASES
REFERENCES
This is a presentation on the topic of Inflammation and repair, prepared by Dr Ashish Jawarkar, he is MD in pathology and a teacher at Parul institute of Medical sciences and research Vadodara.
“Inflame” redirects here. For the 2017 Turkish film, see
Inflame (film).
Toes inflamed by chilblains
Inflammation (from Latin inflammatio) is part of the
complex biological response of body tissues to harmful
stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants,[1]
and is a protective response involving immune cells,
blood vessels, and molecular mediators. The function of
inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury,
clear out necrotic cells and tissues damaged from
the original insult and the inflammatory process, and to
initiate tissue repair.
The classical signs of inflammation are heat, pain, redness,
swelling, and loss of function. Inflammation is a
generic response, and therefore it is considered as a mechanism
of innate immunity, as compared to adaptive immunity,
which is specific for each pathogen.[2] Too little
inflammation could lead to progressive tissue destruction
by the harmful stimulus (e.g. bacteria) and compromise
the survival of the organism. In contrast, chronic
inflammation may lead to a host of diseases, such as hay
fever, periodontitis, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis,
and even cancer (e.g., gallbladder carcinoma). Inflammation
is therefore normally closely regulated by the body.
Inflammation can be classified as either acute or chronic.
Acute inflammation is the initial response of the body to
harmful stimuli and is achieved by the increased movement
of plasma and leukocytes (especially granulocytes)
from the blood into the injured tissues. A series of biochemical
events propagates and matures the inflammatory
response, involving the local vascular system, the
immune system, and various cells within the injured tissue.
Prolonged inflammation, known as chronic inflammation,
leads to a progressive shift in the type of cells
present at the site of inflammation, such as mononuclear
cells, and is characterized by simultaneous destruction
and healing of the tissue from the inflammatory process.
Inflammation is not a synonym for infection. Infection
describes the interaction between the action of microbial
invasion and the reaction of the body’s inflammatory response
— the two components are considered together
when discussing an infection, and the word is used to imply
a microbial invasive cause for the observed inflammatory
reaction. Inflammation on the other hand describes
purely the body’s immunovascular response, whatever the
cause may be. But because of how often the two are
correlated, words ending in the suffix -itis (which refers
to inflammation) are sometimes informally described as
referring to infection. For example, the word urethritis
strictly means only “urethral inflammation”, but clinical
health care providers usually
This is a presentation on the topic of Inflammation and repair, prepared by Dr Ashish Jawarkar, he is MD in pathology and a teacher at Parul institute of Medical sciences and research Vadodara.
“Inflame” redirects here. For the 2017 Turkish film, see
Inflame (film).
Toes inflamed by chilblains
Inflammation (from Latin inflammatio) is part of the
complex biological response of body tissues to harmful
stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants,[1]
and is a protective response involving immune cells,
blood vessels, and molecular mediators. The function of
inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury,
clear out necrotic cells and tissues damaged from
the original insult and the inflammatory process, and to
initiate tissue repair.
The classical signs of inflammation are heat, pain, redness,
swelling, and loss of function. Inflammation is a
generic response, and therefore it is considered as a mechanism
of innate immunity, as compared to adaptive immunity,
which is specific for each pathogen.[2] Too little
inflammation could lead to progressive tissue destruction
by the harmful stimulus (e.g. bacteria) and compromise
the survival of the organism. In contrast, chronic
inflammation may lead to a host of diseases, such as hay
fever, periodontitis, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis,
and even cancer (e.g., gallbladder carcinoma). Inflammation
is therefore normally closely regulated by the body.
Inflammation can be classified as either acute or chronic.
Acute inflammation is the initial response of the body to
harmful stimuli and is achieved by the increased movement
of plasma and leukocytes (especially granulocytes)
from the blood into the injured tissues. A series of biochemical
events propagates and matures the inflammatory
response, involving the local vascular system, the
immune system, and various cells within the injured tissue.
Prolonged inflammation, known as chronic inflammation,
leads to a progressive shift in the type of cells
present at the site of inflammation, such as mononuclear
cells, and is characterized by simultaneous destruction
and healing of the tissue from the inflammatory process.
Inflammation is not a synonym for infection. Infection
describes the interaction between the action of microbial
invasion and the reaction of the body’s inflammatory response
— the two components are considered together
when discussing an infection, and the word is used to imply
a microbial invasive cause for the observed inflammatory
reaction. Inflammation on the other hand describes
purely the body’s immunovascular response, whatever the
cause may be. But because of how often the two are
correlated, words ending in the suffix -itis (which refers
to inflammation) are sometimes informally described as
referring to infection. For example, the word urethritis
strictly means only “urethral inflammation”, but clinical
health care providers usually
aetiology of inflammation; types of inflammation; how inflammation occur; cells involve in inflammation; role of wbc in inflammation; outcome of inflammation; how inflammation associated with immunity, clotting system, complementary system kinin system, how inflammation is associated with oral cavity; disease associated with inflammatory system
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
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Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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4. Outlines of inflammation
General Considerations
Definition; Inflammatory agents; Basic pathological changes of
inflammation; Local and systemic manifestations of Inflammation
Acute inflammation
The process of vascular and cellular events in inflammation,
Inflammatory mediators
The classification and outcomes of acute inflammation
Chronic inflammation
6. Definition
Inflammation is a protective response of vascularized
living tissues to local injury due to any agent, leading to
the accumulation of fluid and leukocytes in extravascular
tissues.
7. Purpose of inflammation
• eliminate the initial cause of cell injury
• Remove necrotic cells and tissue
• Initiate the process of repair
• Also a potentially harmful process
– Components of inflammation that are capable
of destroying microbes can also injury bystander
normal tissue.
8. causes
• Physical agents—excessive heat or cold, radiation
• Chemical agents--strong acid/alkali,poisons
• Infective agents--bacteria, viruses
• Immunological agents- cell-mediated and antigen-antibody reaction
• Inert materials --foreign body- splinter, surgical suture
• Ischemic and necrotic tissues
any agents causing local tissue injury can result in inflammation.
19. Basic morphological changes of inflammation
2. Exudation
The escape of fluid, proteins, and blood cells from vascular
system into the interstitial tissue or body cavities.
inflammatory edema--tissue
inflammatory hydrops--cavity
23. Alteration, Exudation, Proliferation
1. In one type of inflammatory disease, there is mainly one basic
morphological change.
• viral hepatitis----alteration
• purulent inflammation---exudation
• acute nephritis----proliferation
2. Three basic morphological changes are interchangeable .
3. Alteration is damage course; exudation and proliferation are
anti-injury course.
4. Acute inflammation---alteration, exudation
5. Chronic inflammation---proliferation
25. CLASSIFICATION OF INFLAMATION
1. Clinical classification
Acute inflammation
--rapidly developing inflamatory
--for short duration (minutes or hours)
Chronic inflammation
--slow and long lasting inflamatory response to injured tissue
26. FEATURES ACUTE CHRONIC
onset Fast: minutes or hours Slow: days
duration Short: days to months Long: months to years
Cellular infiltrate Mainly neutrophils
Monocytes, macrophage,
lyphocytes
Chief pathological event
Exudation of fluid and plasma
proteins
Proliferation of blood vessels
and fibrosis
Tissue injury, fibrosis Usually mild and self limited
Often severe and progressive
Local and systematic
signs
prominent
Less prominent, maybe
subtle
31. Inflammatory cells
Plasma cells
Eccentric nucleus
Cart-wheel pattern of chromatin
Number increased in the following conditions
• Prolonged infection with immunological
responses (syphilis, rheumatoid arthritis, tuberculosis)
• Hypersensitivity states
• Multiple myeloma
32. Inflammatory cells
Giant cells in inflammation
• Foreign body giant cells (neulei are scattered throughout the
cytoplasm)
• Langhans’ giant cells (nuclei are arranged either around the
periphery in the form of horseshoe or ring, or are clustered at the two
poles of the cell)
• Touton giant cells (lipid content, in xanthoma)
• Aschoff giant cells (rheumatic nodule)
34. Langhans’ giant cells
A giant cell is a mass formed by union several distinct cells(macrophages).
it can arise in response to an infection such as HIV,TB.
Nucleus are ordered arrangement
39. The major local manifestations of
acute inflammation:
(1) vascular dilation;
(2) extravasation of plasma fluid
and protein;
(3) leukocyte emigration and
accumulation in the site of injury
42. 2. Increased vascular permeability
Depends on the integrity of endothelial cells
E
A. contraction of endothelial cells
(the most common mechanism; venules)
OR retraction of endothelial cells (重构)
B. direct injury to endothelal cells
C. Increased transcytosis
D. leakiness in neovascularisation (newly formed capillaries)
E. endothelial injury mediated by leucocyte
44. Differences between transudate and exudate
Feature Transudate Exudate
Definition
Filtrate of blood plasma without changes in endothelial
permieability
Oedema of inflamed tissue associated
with increased vascular permeability
Character Non-inflammatory oedema Inflammatory oedema
Protein content
Low(less than 1 gm/dl);mainly albumin, low fibrinogen;
hence no tendency to coagulate
High(2.5-3.5 gm/dl),readily coagulates
due to high content of fibrinogen and
other coagulation factors
Glucose content Same as in plasma Low(less than 60 mg/dl)
Specific gravity Low(less than 1.015) High(more than 1.018)
pH >7.3 <7.3
LDH Low High
Effusion LDH/serum LDH ratio <0.6 >0.6
Cells Few cells, mesothelial cells and cellular debris
Many cells, inflammatory as well as
parenchymal
Examples Oedema in congestive cardiac failure Purulent exudate such as pus
45. Significance of inflammatory exudation
advantages
Dilute toxin
Bring nutrition material and carry out metabolized
product
Antibodies, complement system
Fibrins prevent microbe spreading
Stimulate cell immunity and humoral immunity
46. Significance of inflammatory exudation
disadvantages
Impair wound healing
compress and obstruction
Severe exudation in important organs may even cause death
Organization may cause carnification
50. 1) Recruitment of leukocytes to sites of infection and injury
2) Recognition of microbes and dead tissues
3) Removal of the offending agents
4) Release of leukocyte products and leukocyte-mediated
tissue injury
Significance of Cellular Events
51. 1. Leucocyte exudation
a. Leukocyte margination and rolling
b. Leukocyte adhesion
c. Emigration/Transmigration
d. Chemotaxis
• The most important feature of inflammatory response
• Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs), monocytes and macrophages
52. a. Leukocyte margination and rolling
Exudation stasis RBC(clumping)
WBC(Neutrophils) pushed into the
margin of blood vessels, the process
is called “MARGINATION”.
Normal: Central axial stream
Hemodynamic pressure disrupt the
mild adhesion, leukocytes tumble
slowly along the endothelium, the
process is called “ROLLING”.
57. d. Chemotaxis
After extravasating from the blood, leukocytes migrate toward sites
of injury along a chemical gradient in a process called Chemotaxis.
Chemotactic Factors
i.e.
Bacteria:
Produce certain
peptides having
(N-formyl-methionine
Amino acid).
Injured cells:
Leukotriene B4 (LT-B4).
Plasma protein:
Complement factor ( C5a).
58. 2. Phagocytosis
• Phagocytosis is defined as the process of engulfment
of solid particulate material by the cells (cell eating).
• There are 2 main types of phagocytic cells:
a) polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs)
b) monocytes and macrophages
59. 2. Process of phagocytosis
Recognition and attachment stage
Engulfment stage
Degranulation stage
Killing or degradation with
lysosomes
60. 2. Process of phagocytosis
Stages in phagocytosis of a foreign particle.
A, Opsonisation of the particle.
B, Pseudopod engulfing the opsonised particle.
C, Incorporation within the cell (phagocytic vacuole) and degranulation.
D, Phagolysosome formation after fusion of lysosome of the cell.
61. Inflammatory mediator
A large and increasing number of chemical substances
which partake in the processes of acute inflammation.
• Function of chemical mediators:
directing the vascular and cellular events in inflammation
• Cell-derived or Plasma-derived mediators
• Act as a complicated network
62. Role of Mediators in Inflammation
Role in Inflammation Mediators
Vasodilation Prostaglandins, Nitric oxide, Histamine
Increased vascular permeability Histamine and serotonin, C3a and C5a,Bradykinin
Leukotrienes C4, D4, E4, PAF, Substance P
Chemotaxis, leukocyte
recruitment and activation
TNF, IL-1, Chemokines, C3a, C5a, Leukotriene B4
Fever IL-1, TNF, Prostaglandins
Pain Prostaglandins, Bradykinin
Tissue damage Lysosomal enzymes of leukocytes, Reactive oxygen
species
Nitric oxide
73. 2. Fibrinous Inflammaion
Causes: More severe injuries can result in greater vascular
permeability. Larger molecules(esp. fibrinogen, then forms
fibrin)come out through the endothelial cells.
Pathologic changes: Eosinophilic meshwork of threads or sometimes
as an amorphous coagulum.
Location: Mucosa, serosa, body cavities, Lung
80. 3. Suppurative Inflammation
Features: The presence of large number of neutrophils and
varying degrees of tissue necrosis and pus formation.
Pus—purulent exudation
Purulent cells—degenerated and necrotic neutrophils
Causes: pyogenic bacteria
subclass: Superficial Suppuration, Abscess, Phlegmonous
Inflammation
81. Superficial Suppuration and Empyema
Superficial Suppuration
Location: mucosal or serosa surface
Features: Pus formation, Suppurative Catarrh
e.g. Suppurative meningitis
Empyema
a collection of pus in a hollow viscus.
e. g. in the gallbladder or fallopian tube, serous cavity
89. Abscess
Definition: Focal localized collections of purulent inflammatory
tissues caused by suppuration buried in a tissue, an organ, or a
confined space.
Locus--skin, lung, brain, liver, kidney
Reason: a deep seeding of pyogenic bacteria into a tissue
Staphylococcus aureus
Features: a cystic space from the resolved liquefactive necrosis.
92. Abscess of Skin
Furuncle:the localized suppurative
inflammation of haircyst, sebaceous
gland & surrounding tissues.
Carbuncle:Fusion of quite a few
furuncles.
93. 4. Hemorrhagic Inflammation
Inflammation associated with conspicuous haemorrhage
as a result of vascular damage.
In some instances:
epidemic hemorrhagic fever
Leptospirosis
Plague
anthrax
anthrax bacillus meningitis
94. outcome of acute Inflammation
Resolution
Progression to chronic inflammation
Dissemination
Local spread
Lymphatic spread
Hematogenous spread
95. Events in the complete
resolution of inflammation
Return to normal vascular
permeability
Removal of fluid and protein
Macrophage pinocytosis
Phagocytosis by neutrophils
Necrotic debris by macrophages
Eventual exodus by
macrophages
101. Causes of chronic inflammation
Chronic inflammation following acute inflammation
Recurrent attacks of acute inflammation
Chronic inflammation starting de nove
102. General features of chronic inflammtion
• inflammatory cells infiltration
Mononuclear cells :Macrophages(MOs)/ Histiocytes
others : Lymphocytes, Plasma cells and Eosinophils
• Tissue destruction or necrosis
• Proliferative changes
Proliferation of small blood vessels (revascularization).
Increase the connective tissue(fibrosis)
104. MOs functions
1. Produce toxic, biologically active substances such as
oxygen metabolites.
2. Cause influx of other cells such as other macrophages
and lymphocytes.
3. Cause fibroblast proliferation and collagen deposition.
4. Phagocytosis.
105. chronic inflammation
Characterized by cellular proliferation
parenchymal cell proliferation
mesenchymal cell proliferation
lymphoid tissue proliferation
granulomatous inflammation
proliferation of macrophage and its derivatives
107. Inflammatory pseudotumor
Tumor-like proliferation of local
tissues (parenchymal, stromal,
even inflammatory cells) resulting
from chronic inflammation
It is not a real tumor
Occur in the orbit, lung, liver and
spleen
108. Inflammatory polyp
composed of mucosal glands,
granulation tissue, and
inflammatory cells.
Commonly seen in nasal,
cervical & colorectal
mucosa.
polyp of vocal cord
cervical polyp
111. Chronic granulomatous inflammation
Granuloma is defined as a circumscribed, tiny lesion, composed
predominantly of collection of modified macrophages, and
rimmed at the periphery by lymphoid cells.
• Special type of chronic inflammation
• Distinctive pattern (granuloma--small nodular )
• Aggregation of activated macrophages (derived cell)
• Diameter 0.5-2mm
112. Activated Macrophages in Granulomas
Special type of Macrophage
Epithelioid cells: Tuberculosis, Sarcoidosis, Crohn disease,
Leprosy
Typhoid cells Typhoid fever
Aschoff cells Rheumatic fever
Multinuclear giant cells
Langhans cells : Tuberculosis
Foreign body giant cells: Foreign body granuloma
113. the cells derived from macrophage
atherosclerosis—foamy cell Rheumatism—Aschoff cell
114. the cells derived from macrophage
Tuberculosis-- epithelioid cell
-- a squamous cell-like appearance
typhoid fever--typhoid cell
116. Two factors necessary for granuloma formation
Presence of indigestible organisms or particles
(Tb-- tubercle bacillus, mineral oil, etc)
Cell mediated immunity (T cells)
117. Injury
Failure to digest agent
Weak acute inflammatory response
Persistence of injurious agent
T cell-mediated immune
response
Poorly digestible agent
Activation of CD+ T cells
Monocyte chemotactic factor
Accumulation of tissue macrophages
Macrophages activated by IFN-γ
Transformed to epithlioid cells, giant cells
Granuloma
THE MECHANISM
OF EVOLUTION OF
GRANULOMA
126. Foreign body’s granuloma
Features: foreign bodies
Foreign body giant cells: seen in association with
particulate insoluble material. Nuclei scattered
throughout cytoplasm.
127. Two foreign body giant cells are seen just to the right of center where
there is a bluish strand of suture material from a previous operation
128. Here is a foreign body type giant cell at the upper left of center
adjacent to a segment of vegetable material aspirated into the lung
129. Outcome of chronic inflammation
Resolution/regeneration/restitution of normal structure.
Repair/organization/healing by connective tissue/ fibrosis/
scarring.
It can continue indefinitely--some disease processes are capable
of continuing indefinitely such as rheumatoid arthritis.
130. Resolution
Definition: Resolution is the return of tissue to its normal state.
Factors necessary for resolution:
• Removal of the offending agent
• Regenerative ability if cells have been destroyed
• Intact stromal framework