India transitioned from a British colony to independence and partition in the early 20th century. The Indian National Congress advocated for self-governance through non-violent protests like hartals, satyagraha campaigns led by Gandhi. Tensions rose following the Amritsar massacre and the emergence of the Muslim League, leading to the 1935 Government of India Act and ultimately partition in 1947, creating India and Pakistan amid violence that cost over a million lives.

1. INDIA IN THE
FIRST HALF
OF THE 20TH
CENTURY:
from imperial
gem to
independence
and partition

2. References:
 Text: pp 238 - 241
 Handbook: pp 61 - 62
 Handout (old text - Howarth): pp 71 - 72,
202 - 204, (295 - 298: 1947-1990)
Amritsar, 1919
Muslim League
Indian National Congress
Salt March, 1930
Home Spun
Hartal
Partition, 1947
Civil Disobedience
Satyagraha
Gov of India Act, 1935

3. Initial Organizers (so what?)
 India was the “most truly bright and precious
jewel” in the Empire’s crown.
 For the essayist, one of two examples of a
pacifistic revolution in the 20th century
(in contrast to violent revolutions).
 Example of a charismatic leader who gained
attention on the world stage and brought political
pressure to bear.
 Shows the contrast between British and French
post-war policies towards their colonies.

4. Mohandas “Mahatma”Gandhi
 Born in India
 Educated in England
 Practiced law in South Africa
Ambulance worker
during the Boer War,
1898
Civil disobedience in opposition to Brit
indentured labour laws = success

5. 400 Years of Colonial Rule
 British East India Co. (Eliz. I) 1600
 Indian War of Indep. (Indian Mutiny) 1857-58 -
the Raj comes out on top
 British xenophobia from 1850s on.

6. Indian National Congress
(the Congress Party)
 Formed by middle class Indians in 1885
 Nationalist
 Hindu-dominated, but
 Large Muslim minority
 Used non-violent resistance (satyagraha)
 Disobey laws
 Don’t pay taxes
 Strikes
 Fasts
hartal
 Gatherings/demonstrations/marches

7. 1919…
 Large numbers of Indians sent overseas w/o
consultation.
 1919 Indians call for Home Rule (inside of the British
Empire - ie. British system not seen as all bad).
 1919 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms = dyarchy (p 61,
Handbook)
BUT 3 EVENTS CLOUDED INDIAN GOODWILL:
 Rowlatt Acts 1919 Indians rights suspended = no Habeas
Corpus (right to go before a judge with a charge).
 Emergence of Gandhi who sees constitutional challenge
useless.
 And Amritsar Massacre – more on that in a minute
So…

8. 1919…
Congress Party calls for “Hartal”
= non-violent boycott of all Raj-sponsored
institutions (including the army) and
goods/services (especially clothing).
However…rioting showed Indians not
ready, so hartal ends. But…

9. 1919…
 2 Congress Party leaders are arrested and taken
to unknown place.
 Protest in Amritsar, Punjab.
machine gun

10. 1919…
 2 Congress Party leaders are arrested and taken
to unknown place.
 Protest in Amritsar, Punjab.
machine gun

11. 1919…
 2 Congress Party leaders are arrested and taken
to unknown place.
 Protest in Amritsar, Punjab.
machine gun

12. Reaction in India and Britain is
swift:
 Churchill condemns General Dyer in the
Commons.
 A few years of periodic revolts/violence in
India follows in spite of Gandhi’s call for
Muslims and Hindus to unite in
satyagraha.
 Call for Hindu-Muslim unity + Gandhi calls
for all to reject the caste system that
divides - ex. He called the Untouchables
Harijans: “Children of God.”
 Some very bloody events…..

13. Reaction, cont.
 Gandhi said Indians must not fight back,
even if beaten by police.
 1922 15 Indian policemen hacked up after
rough arrests - tensions boil over.
 Gandhi 21 day fast unto death nationalists stop to save Gandhi!
 Gandhi still jailed for sedition even though
he single-handedly stopped anarchistic
revolt.

14. Flag of Indian independence:
1920s Non-Cooperation Movement
Still within the Empire?

15. Homespun, or khadi

16. Homespun, or khadi

17. The Salt March
1930

18. On Feb 15
the Congress
Working
Committee
authorized
civil
disobedience
“as and when
they desire
and to the
extent they
see fit.”

19. 12 March - 6 April: Every day there were
speeches as he made his way to the ocean:
“Every day people tell me, ‘Today
you will certainly be arrested.’
However, the tiger does not
appear!”

20. “In all humility but in perfect truth I claim that if
we attain our end through non-violent means
India will have delivered a message to the world.

21. ARRESTS: the march was not
obstructed but…
• 6 April: Gandhi’s ceremonial harvest on
beach at Dandi.
• 13 April: Nehru + delegates arrested.
• 5 May: Gandhi arrested at Salt Works.
• 26 January, 1931: Gandhi released.
4 March, 1931 Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed based
on round-table discussions in London.

22. Illegal Salt
Sales: 60,000
imprisoned in
the first month.
Some protesters
shot but also some
Indian Army
soldiers refused to
shoot when
ordered.
(like the Tsar’s Cossaks?

23. • First taste of democratic selfgovernment.
• Full control of the 11
provinces to the Indians.
• Central government still
shared power with the British.
Tension between the
Congress and the Muslim
League.

24. (Free Indian Legion)
Nationalism during WW2:

25. Subhash Chandra Bose’s
violent methods
vs.
Gandhi’s pacifism
FREE
INDIA
Flag of th
e
Indian Na
tional
A rm y

29. Bose’s Provisional Govt of
Free India
• Established in Singapore in 1943.
• Anti-racist and anti-imperial (hmmm, how does that fit
within the Japanese Asia for the Asians?
• Why would Britain (and India) attempt to censor news
of the resulting 1946 mutiny trials?
• The Indian Navy (and then other units) started to
oppose these trials ∴
The British decide the Indian military cannot be
trusted - it’s time to get out whether they like it or not.

30. And how about the Congress?
• Refused to support Brit war effort
(not even with
promise of Dominion status)
“a post-dated cheque from a crashing
bank.” Gandhi
• Why wouldn’t Gandhi trust a govt led by
Churchill? “I have not become His Majesty’s first minister in
order to preside over the dissolution of the British Empire” Churchill
= Quit
India slogan.
• Clement Attlee sees India as a political liability:
£ + casualties = not re-elected.

31. Post WW2
Gandhi wanted to keep India
together.
 Aug 1946: riots speed up transfer of
power and Viceroy Mountbatten
initiates conferences
- time is short: the bloodshed must be
curbed.
 Ali Jinnah will get his “Land of the
Pure.”
 The Sihks and Hindus will share
India.
 Individual provinces will vote to
discover their nation of choice.

32. ALI JINNAH

33. GANDHI
NEHRU

34. Aug 14, 1947: Pakistan is independent
Aug 15: 1947: India is independent

35. 1971:
Pakistan was split

36. Name Changes Occurred
Ba
ng
lad
es
Sri
Lan
ka
h
My
an
ma
r

37. Partition brought Violence and
Turmoil:
 Some states were ruled by princes, not the
British - some were large!
 Slaughters took place where ethnic groups
were “out of their territory.”
 1.5 million refugees.

38. RRefugees

42. Gandhi’s worst fears were realized - he went to
Calcutta to try to stop reprisals by Hindus
against Muslims.
He was killed by an extremist Hindu:
thank goodness it wasn’t a Muslim!
“Gandhi has been killed by his own people for
whose redemption he lived….Father forgive
us.” Hindustan Standard, Feb 1, 1947

43. Gandhi Killed Jan 30, 1948

46. Considerations:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Peaceful civil disobedience vs. violent revolution
Role of nationalism
Charismatic leadership
World opinion - domestic political pressure
Imperial nations unburdening themselves
Vacuum created by decolonization
Ethnic cleansing
Partition
end

47. Use these key words to write a concise
75-word summary:
Muslim League
Indian National Congress
Amritsar, 1919
Home Rule
Montagu-Chelmsford
Civil Disobedience
Satyagraha
Hartal
Home Spun
Salt March, 1930
Gov of India Act, 1935
Partition, 1947