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Greek, Etruscan, Roman Lecture
- 1. The Greek World 2
- 4. Figure 5-4 Mantiklos Apollo , statuette of a youth dedicated by Mantiklos to Apollo, from Thebes, Greece, ca. 700–680 BCE. Bronze, 8” high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 11 Orientalizing Period
- 9. Figure 5-11 Peplos Kore , from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 530 BCE. Marble, 4’ high. Acropolis Museum, Athens. 21 Kore
- 17. Figure 5-30 Temple of Hera II, Paestum, Italy, ca. 460 BCE. 46 Greek Architecture
- 27. Italy in Etruscan Times 2
- 35. The Roman World 2
- 36. Figure 10-2 Model of the city of Rome during the early fourth century CE. Museo della Civiltà Romana. 1) Temple of Portunus,, 2) Circus Maximus. 3) Palatine Hill, 4) Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, 5) Pantheon, 6) Column of Trajan, 7) Forum of Trajan, 8) Markets of Trajan, 9) Forum of Julius Ceasar, 10) Forum of Augustus, 11) Forum Romanum, 12) Basilica Nova, 13) Arch of Titus, 14) Temple of Venus and Roma, 15) Arch of Constantine, 16) Colossus of Nero, 17) Colosseum. 7 Model of 4th Century AD Rome
- 46. Figure 10-36 Aerial view of the Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater), Rome, Italy, ca. 70–80 CE. 45 Roman Architecture
Editor's Notes
- The Classical Age of Ancient Greece is from where we consider our Western Cultural roots began about 2,500 years ago Greeks called themselves Hellenes intermingling of Aegean people and Indo-European invaders not a single nation-established city states or poleis (singuar, polis) 776 BC separate Greek-speaking states held first Olympic games (named such because held at Olympia) after this, Greeks considered themselves citizens of Hellas (ancient name of Greece) saw themselves as separate from the barbarians whom they were surrounded by (didn’t speak Greek) their gods were also different only different from humans because they were immortal perfect individual became Greek ideal MAN WAS MOST IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF SOCIETY
- Dark Age of Greece Starting around 1200 BC (similar timing to the late Bronze age) Downfall of Mycenaean (late Helladic) kings and destruction of palaces loss of knowledge cutting masonry constructing citadels and tombs painting frescoes sculpting in stone reading writing 8th century BC- economic conditions improve population begin to grow again Greeks broke out of isolation began to trade with cities in east and west
- Figure 5-2 Geometric krater, from the Dipylon cemetery, Athens, Greece, ca. 740 BCE. 3’ 4 1/2” high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 8th Century BC human figure came back to Greek Art not monumental statuary small bronze figurines paintings on ceramic pots Dipylon Krater one of earliest examples of Greek figurative painting marked grave of man buried around 740 BC Dipylon cemetery of Athens over 3’ tall potter’s skill wealth and position of deceased family bottom open libations for deceased drain for rainwater Abstract, angular motifs horizontal registers meander most early Greek painters decorated with abstract motifs (designated this period as Geometric) earliest example date to 9th century BC Human figures on widest part of vase depicts mourning of man chariot procession Every space filled figures 2-dimensional-like decoration composite view chariot-only see 2 wheels horses # of heads equals with # of legs share one body no overlapping or depth Significant because of Human figure and storytelling revived
- Figure 5-4 Mantiklos Apollo , statuette of a youth dedicated by Mantiklos to Apollo, from Thebes, Greece, ca. 700–680 BCE. Bronze, 8” high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 600s BC- trade and colonization speeding up more exposure to Eastern artworks so much borrowed from Egyptian and Near Eastern art: time period dubbed Orientalizing Period statuette dedicated to Apollo at Thebes scratched into thighs of figure message from dedicator to deity: “Mantiklos dedicated me as a tithe to the far-shooting Lord of the Silver Bow; you, Phoibos (Apollo), might give some pleasing favor in return.” uncertain if figure represents Apollo or Mantikos (or neither) if left hand would have held bow, would have been Appolo purpose of votive offering
- Figure 5-8 Kouros, ca. 600 BCE. Marble, 6’ 1/2” high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Archaic Period- start followed Orientalizing age 6th Century BC known for its Statuary Daedalus used same compostional pattern for his statues as that of the Egyptians first statues look very similar monumental sculpture took form of Kouros (nude Male youth) and Kore (draped maiden) long thought to represent only deities-now known that many of these represent mortals They were often Life size more naturalistic than Geometric period abstraction still present triangular flat-topped head hair that form triangles complementary to shape of face decoration of skirt-incised concentric squares sculptures were painted hands left color of stone eyes, lips, hair and drapery painted in encaustic Modeled after Egyptian sculptures-common stance -followed established conventions-set by the Egyptians rigidly frontal (based on received knowledge rather than visual anaysis) hands to side fists clenched with thumbs forward increased knowledge of anatomy -Greek athletes were models for these figures -gained from watching athletes and warriors while they practiced New York Kouros funerary statue they were often placed on pedestals outside temples as votive offerings or set as memorials on gravesites-represented gods, Homeric heores, or warriors -some engraved with inscriptions replaced huge vases also used as votive offerings in sanctuaries
- right: Figure 3-13 Menkaure and Khamerernebty (?), from Gizeh, Egypt, Fourth Dynasty, ca. 2490–2472 BCE. Graywacke, 4’ 6 1/2” high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Nude vs. Clothed Increased knowledge of anatomy
- Figure 5-10 Kroisos, from Anavysos, Greece, ca. 530 BCE. Marble, 6’ 4” high. National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Around 530 BC, young man named Kroisos Kros-i-sos died in battle family erected kouros statue over grave at Anavysos A-nav-y-sos (close to Athens) some of paint perserved base inscribed: “stay and mourn at the tomb of dead Kroisos, whom raging Ares destroyed one day as he fought in the foremost ranks” not portraiture-similar to New York Kouros only 70 years after Kouros similar stance more naturalistic rendering of body better proportions (head closer to scale for body) full cheeks and musculature (rounded hips) hair falls naturally
- Archaic Smile Anavysos Kouros is more naturalistic than New York Kouros
- Figure 5-11 Peplos Kore , from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 530 BCE. Marble, 4’ high. Acropolis Museum, Athens. late 6th century BC Ionian (group of Hellenic people) Chiton (long woolen tunic) worn with Himation (outer garment over left shoulder, under right) worn by fashionable women intricate patterns created by folds of material
- Clothed vs. nude still rigid fronality stylization of form
- Figure 5-22 ANDOKIDES PAINTER, Achilles and Ajax playing a dice game (Athenian bilingual amphora), from Orvieto, Italy, ca. 525–520 BCE. Black-figure side ( left ) and red-figure side ( right ). 1’ 9” high. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. An-do-Ki-dees New Technique came around 530 BC anonymous painter who decorated vases signed by potter An-do-ki-des some people think potter was also the painter Red Figure Technique-prior to this, only black figure technique was used use of slips Bilingual Painting: vases with red figure and black figure techniques Same theme: Achilles and Ajax Exekias was painter’s teacher
- Athens: symbol of ancient Greek culture End of 6 th century There was a transition from tyrannic rule to democracy in Athens just before 500 B.C. created democracy rule by the demos (the people) The Greek idea of freedom was An Assertion of man’s autonomy (self government) and free will Relating to Man’s ability to master environment through intellect however, most dominated by wellborn white males most admired virtues not wisdom and justice politics and military valor held with more esteem Athens emerged as dominant power among city states and entered fabled golden age or classical age lasted only a few generations city states fought with each other often Macedonians and Romans eventually took over Change from Archaic style of 6 th century BC to classical Greek sculpture of 480BC -single most rapid change in Western art Speed of progress in arts incredible Democracy balanced need of individual with those of the group Classical art balanced interest in individual, natural, specific features with generalities, ideas, and norms, straining neither in one direction nor the other Outlook on life that was humanistic, antiauthoritarian, questioning and undogmatic Because Man empowered by intellect Endowed with gift of emotion Both Qualities set apart from all other nature’s species Greeks exalted mankind slavery was regarded as natural women were not equals Searched for ideals while recognizing human limitations and importance of individual Idea of humankind most important element of existence Man measure of all things Liberated depiction of human form Reality with center that was autonomous human being New style from Archaic sources Technical skill, formal beauty SPIRITUAL Content Tragic version of Life Portrayal of inevitability of human suffering unusual in public art of other cultures Western art , pagan and Christian, concept that suffering brings wisdom -one of great themes Derived from Greeks Education Balance of intellectual and physical exercise affected education and daily life humanistic education
- Figure 5-34 Kritios Boy , from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 480 BCE. Marble, 2’ 10” high. Acropolis Museum, Athens. Kritios Boy is the earliest known example of contrapposto , a relaxed and natural stance. Notice how his weight shifts to his left leg and how his head turns slightly to his right. Head slightly turned Notice absence of Archaic smile Under life-size Naturalistic: well-developed musculature hair facial features smooth surface (skin-like)
- Left: Figure 5-8 Kouros, ca. 600 BC E. Marble, 6’ 1/2” high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Middle: Figure 5-10 Kroisos, from Anavysos, Greece, ca. 530 BC E. Marble, 6’ 4” high. National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Right: Figure 5-34 Kritios Boy , from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 480 BC E. Marble, 2’ 10” high. Acropolis Museum, Athens.
- Figure 5-39 MYRON, Diskobolos ( Discus Thrower ). Roman marble copy of a bronze original of ca. 450 BCE, 5’ 1” high. Museo Nazionale Romano—Palazzo Massimo alle Terme. Disk-o-bolos Roman Marble copy by Myron several copies-high demand marble cheaper than bronze displayed in public places and private villas Frozen Action different than Zeus/Poseidon in middle of action rather than before action tension in anatomy-how human body really responds Facial Expression -none Head turned away from viewer focus on task, not audience
- Figure 5-40 POLYKLEITOS, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) . Roman marble copy from Pompeii, Italy, after a bronze original of ca. 450–440 BCE, 6’ 11” high. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples. Doryphoros Door-if-o-rus by Polykeitos Most commonly copied by Romans Originally titled Canon Established Polykleitos’ canon of proportions, setting ideal correlations among body parts Contrapposto: more pronounced than ever Notice the harmony of opposites straight arm echoes straight leg (columnar stablility) right arm and left leg relaxed tense supporting leg opposes flexed arm that held spear assymetrical balance motion at rest very pronounced musculature post against leg?
- Figure 5-30 Temple of Hera II, Paestum, Italy, ca. 460 BCE. Greeks mainly known for their sculpture (Rome known for architecture) Romans greatly influenced by Greek architecture Temples made to gods/goddesses Art Historians mark beginning of Classical age from historical event: defeat of Persian invaders of Greece by allied Hellenic city-states Temple of Hera II Doric Order similar to Temple of Zeus at Olympia (in ruins) Low/squat proportions (heavy looking) both follow plan of Temple of Aphaia more lavishly decorated with pediment sculpture and metope reliefs (sculpture in both pediments)
- Figure 5-44 IKTINOS and KALLIKRATES, Parthenon, (Temple of Athena Parthenos, looking southeast), Acropolis, Athens, Greece, 447–438 BCE. Doric and Ionic Ik-ti-nos and Kal-i-Krate-es Phidias was sculptor of Athena also overseer of sculptural decoration culmination of search for ideal architectural proportions in Doric temple design perfect proportions : x=2y+1 short ends have 8 columns long ends have 17 (8*2+1=17) deviations from strictly horizontal and vertical lines basis of all Greek post-and-lintel structures stylobate (base) curves upward at center on sides and both facades carried up into entablature (under pediment) columns lean in slightly corners diagonal and about 2 inches thicker if continued up, would meet about 1.5 miles above temple made for difficulty in construction every piece custom carved theories why curving of horizontals and tilting of verticals: dynamic balance-architectural contapposto-sense of life Vitruvius (Roman architect late 1st century BC)-oldest recorded explanation-compensate for optical illusions stylobate on level surface: appears to sag at center corner columns thicker because surrounded by light (negative space)-appears thinner than interior ones
- Hera II (460 BC) vs. Parthenon (447-438 BC) Parthenon more elegant
- Figure 5-60 PHIALE PAINTER, Hermes bringing the infant Dionysos to Papposilenos (Athenian white-ground calyx krater), from Vulci, Italy, ca. 440–435 BCE. 1’ 2” high. Musei Vaticani, Rome. Phale Painter White-Ground Hermes handing over his half brother (infant Dionysos) to Papposilenos Pap-po-si-len-os (grandpa -satyr) only used colors that could survive heat of kiln reds, brown, purple, white
- Late Classical Period Peloponnesian War from 431 BC-404 BC Sparta defeated Athens Thebes (northwest of Athens) took leadership of Greece Greek city states rose up against lost a battle and relinquished independence to Macedonian king Philip II Philip II assassinated in 336 BC his son Alexander III “ Alexander the Great ” succeeded him led army that overthrew Persian Empire took control of Egypt 4th Century BC- change in cultural philosophy political upheaval strife caused by Peloponnesian War continual anger or bitterness over fundamental issues led to loss of idealism of 5th century BC rational human beings could impose order on their environment create “perfect” statues through proportions, or create mathematically formulated perfect architecture art focus community ideal world of perfect beings and perfect buildings changed art they produced focus on individual focus on real world appearances
- Praxiteles: Prax-i-tel-es one of greatest sculptors of 4th century BC did not reject High Classical period themes retained superhuman beauty took a worldly sensuousness Aphrodite Praxiteles sold to Knidians (Ni-dians) after another city rejected it original lost known only by Roman copies made Knidos (Ni-dos) famous people sailed there just to see it in the round temple where it went (could see from all angles) completely nude prior-only seen in paintings on vases for household use prior-women depicted were courtesans or slave girls 1st time depicting noblewoman or goddess depiction of everyday activity (about ready to take a bath) not erotic covering pubis with hand
- Hellenistic Period Alexander the Great’s conquest of Near East and Egypt brought in new cultural age called Hellenistic started with death of Alexander (323 BC) lasted almost 3 centuries until double suicide of Queen Cleopatra of Egypt and Roman consort Mark Antony 30 BC after defeat at battle of Actium defeated by Antony’s Roman rival Augustus Augustus made Egypt a province of Roman Empire Artwork of the time Dramatic Violent Energetic Tactile Sexual Unrestrained Cultural centers court cities of Greek kings (successors of Alexander) divided empire among themselves all spoke Greek kings became rich on spoils of the East small, heroic city-states passed away power and prestige of Athens passed away
- larger than life-size overtly sexual left hand (separately preserved)-holds apple Paris gave her when he judged her the most beautiful goddess of all right hand possibly had grasped edge of drapery near left hip-half-attempting to hold drapery up tease the spectator
- Praxiteles’ Aphrodite vs. Venus De Milo _________________ Praxiteles completely nude (modest) Venus De Milo more sexual (seductively tempting)
- Lay-aw-cu-on 146 B.C. Greece became Roman province 120-63 BC -Athens went to war against Rome (Athens lost) continued as cultural and learning center no longer politically significant Greeks were greatly admired by Romans Romans liked their arts and culture Greek artists in large demand made copies of Classical and Hellenistic masterpieces made new statues in the Greek style for Roman patrons __________________________________ Laocoon Group 1st Century A.D. attributed to 3 artists: Athana-doros, Hag-es-andros, Poly-doros of Rhodes This piece was Rediscovered in 1506 -Esquiline Hill in Rome -affected work of Michelangelo (and other Renaissance artists) long believed to be original from 2nd century BC found in remains of palace of emperor Titus (ruled 79-81 AD) Pliny saw it here Pliny was Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher also naval and army commander of Roman Army Probably based on Hellenistic masterpiece depicting Laocoon and only 1 son Story of Trojan priest who warned fellow Trojans not to bring wooden horse into Troy during a 10-year attempt of Greece to siege Troy this version with 2 sons fit Vergil’s account of the legend written in the Aeneid (poem) -to punish Laocoon, gods sent 2 huge snakes -swam ashore, and slowly entwined and killed Laocoon and 2 sons
- Base of civilization between Arno and Tiber rivers (Central Italy) area of Tuscany centered on Florence (birthplace of Renaissance art) many myths on where the Etruscans came from probably mix of native and immigrant populations occured in early 1st millennium BC 8th and 7th centuries BC: skilled sea-people traded abroad 6th century BC, controlled most of northern and central Italy from Tar-quin-ia , Cer-ve-teri , Vulci and Veii never united to form a state (not a nation or kingdom) only territory known as Etruria-where Etrurians lived only unity between-common linguistics and religious beliefs and practices lack of political cohesion made for easy prey of Romans
- Figure 9-2 Fibula with Orientalizing lions, from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb, Cerveteri, Italy, ca. 650–640 BCE. Gold, 1’ 1/2” high. Musei Vaticani, Rome. Etruscan periods were similar to Greek art periods 7th century BC-Orientalizing Archaic Classical Helenistic Orientalizing Period mined iron, tin, copper, silver created prosperous cities elite families purchased foreign items Etruscan aristocrats liked objects with Eastern motifs thus local artists made objects for homes and tombs inspired by these motifs Golden Fibula (clasp or Safety pin) used to fasten a woman’s gown at the shoulder Regolini-Galassi Tomb (named for excavators) Italic tradition 5 lions-Oriental motif technique also Eastern influence: combining repousse (hammered relief) and granulation (fusing of tiny metal balls, or granules, to a metal surface)
- Figure 9-3 Model of a typical sixth-century BCE Etruscan temple, as described by Vitruvius. Istituto di Etruscologia e di Antichità Italiche, Università di Roma, Rome. Etruscans admired Greek art and architecture Etruscan Temples usually only the foundations survived (because of materials used) Roman Architect Vitruvius written work on architecture near end of 1st century BC gives account of Etruscan temples This model based on Vitruvius’s account similar to Greek ( gabled roof temples) & Columns different than Greek wooden columns Doric order unfluted (different than Greek) terracotta -tiled roof walls made of sun-dried brick entrance through narrow staircase at center of front of temple (sat on high podium columns only in front of building (made deep porch)-made one side of structure “main side” functioned as home for statues of Etruscan gods 3 cellas (one for each of chief gods) pediment statuary was rare often put life-size Etruscans on peaks of gabled roofs
- Figure 9-4 Apulu (Apollo), from the roof of the Portonaccio temple, Veii, Italy, ca. 510–500 BCE. Painted terracotta, 5’ 11” high. Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome. One of best surviving rooftop statues energy excitement comes from temple in Portonaccio sanctuary at Veii 1 of a group of at least 4 painted terracotta figures depicted one of 12 labors of Herakles bright paint and garment folds Similar to Archaic korai Different with striding motion dramatic use of hands
- Figure 9-11 Capitoline Wolf , from Rome, Italy, ca. 500–480 BCE. Bronze, 2’ 7 1/2” high. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Defined musculature Animal Temperament Later Etruscan Art 5th century BC : was the golden age in Greece not golden age of Etruria 509 BC -Romans expelled last of Etruscan kings replaced monarchy with republican form of government 474 BC -alliance of Cu-maean Greeks and Hi-ron I of Sicily defeated Etruscan’s fleet off Cu-mae ending Etruscan dominance of seas-ended Etruscan prosperity Classical Art number of Etruscan tombs decreased quality of furnishings declined significantly tombs not filled with golden jewelry and imported Greek vases or decorated with highest-quality mural paintings Specialities of Etruscan artists still continued and excelled castings of statues in bronze and terra-cotta they were just fewer in #’s Capitoline Wolf best known of later Etruscan statues larger than life-size hollow-cast bronze legend of she-wolf that nursed Romulus and Remus after abandoned as infants when twins grew to adulthood, quarreled and Romulus killed brother April 21, 753 BC, Romulus founded Rome and became city’s king statue made for new Roman Republic after expulsion of Tar-uin-ius Superbus Government’s new totem and emblem of Rome even till today not work of Roman art (not yet developed distinct identity) Etruscan piece of work suckling infants-15th century additions Significant portrayal of animal temperament tense, watchful lowered neck and head, alert ears, glaring eyes, ferocious mussle
- Almost century later than Capitoline Wolf Composite Beast-seen in other cultures Chimera: Monster of Greek invention lion’s head and serpent’s tail goat’s head growing out of side bears wound of Greek hero Bellerophon inflicted when hunted and slain defined musculature and ferociousness
- Figure 9-16 Aule Metele ( Arringatore) , from Cortona, near Lake Trasimeno, Italy, early first century BCE. Bronze, 5’ 7” high. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Florence. Aule Metele even later Etruscan portrait magistrate Aule Metele raising arm to address an assembly life-size shows continual expertise of Etruscan bronze-casting even after time of prosperity probably produced around time Romans achieved total dominance over Etruscans 1st century BC Roman citizenship of all of Italy’s inhabitants wearing short toga and high-laced boots of Roman magistrate head close-cropped hair and signs of age in face resembles portraits in Rome at the time Etruscan name of father and mother inscribed on hem of garment Etruscan in name only Aule Metele and fellow countrymen became Romans so Etruscan art became Roman art
- Throughout history, civilization would conquer civilization . When done so, the conquerors would often absorb cultural influences from those they conquered. April 21st, 753 BC-Romulus and Remus decided to build city quarrel-Remus killed 510-509 BC-Roman Republic set up 27BC-Imperial Rome During this time period Rome began taking over territories Etruscans Gauls Samnites Greeks Car-thag-in-ians Rome became a rival power to Greece in the declining years of Greece’s Hellenistic age -by 146 B.C. southern Italy as well as Greece had become Roman colonies -Rome was well on its way to becoming a vast empire Roman Monuments of art and architecture all over territory Romans governed very noticeable very numerous Europe, Middle East, and Africa temples and basilicas still used as churches concrete vaults of buildings as cores of modern houses, stores, restaurants, factories and museums Amphitheaters still used for events today sport events, operas, rock concerts Ships dock in ports that use to be Roman European highways closely follow routes of Roman roads Concepts of law and government, languages, calendar and coins Western world IN ROME, MOST IMPORTANT THING WAS STATE OF ROME: GREECE-MAN WAS MOST IMPORTANT art and architecture for the glory of Rome Use of art (portraits and narrative reliefs) used to manipulate public opinion Mastery of concrete construction started here Archaic Period-Rome learned from the Etruscans
- Figure 10-2 Model of the city of Rome during the early fourth century CE. Museo della Civiltà Romana. 1) Temple of Portunus,, 2) Circus Maximus. 3) Palatine Hill, 4) Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, 5) Pantheon, 6) Column of Trajan, 7) Forum of Trajan, 8) Markets of Trajan, 9) Forum of Julius Ceasar, 10) Forum of Augustus, 11) Forum Romanum, 12) Basilica Nova, 13) Arch of Titus, 14) Temple of Venus and Roma, 15) Arch of Constantine, 16) Colossus of Nero, 17) Colosseum. 211 BC Marcellus (conqueror of Sicilian Greek city of Syracuse) brought spoils to Rome Greek art started Roman want for Greek art More exposure came with more Greek conquests outside of Italy Greece became province-146BC 133 BC-last Attalid (Hellenistic) Dynasty gave their power to Rome Buildings and statues of Roman based mainly off Greek and Etruscan works
- Figure 10-18 Dionysiac mystery frieze, Second Style wall paintings in Room 5 of the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 60–50 BCE. Fresco, frieze 5’ 4” high.after 80 BC-new style 24th of August AD 79-Mt. Vesuvius re-discovered-1748 3-D world most believe it was Roman invention nothing seen prior to in Greece Not intended to create illusion of marble wall create illusion of imaginary 3-dimensional world Overlapping Modeling of figures Illusion of edge they walk along Villa of the Mysteries in room thought to be used to celebrate rites of Greek Dionysos/Roman Bacchus unofficial mystery religion practiced by women in Italy at this time what they did in the rites is unknown picture may be evidence of some initiation ritual background-series of panels imitating 1st style wall painting (without relief modeling) almost life-size figures figures interacting with each other winged woman with whip-striking at bare-backed woman on right (bride to be of Dionysos)
- Jupiter and Thetis Ingres 1811 French neoclassical painter-possibly inspired by Pompeii frescos 1748-Mt. Vesuvius frescos rediscovered
- Almost all builders of Republican temples and sanctuaries were men from old/ distinguished families often victorious generals-used spoils from war to finance public works proud of their lineage kept likenesses of ancestors in wooden cupboards in homes paraded them at funerals of prominent relatives Portraiture through this, the aristocratic class celebrated their elevated position in society subjects almost exclusively men advanced age (usually elders held power in Republic) want for super-realism ( veristic )-not idealized Head of an Old Man unidentified patrician from Osimo wrinkles of age serious, experienced, determined (expression of face ) Romans believed head alone was enough to constitute portraiture
- Julius Caesar murdered March 44 BC Roman civil war lasted until 31 BC-Octavian ( Augustus )-Ceasar’s grandnephew & adopted son beat Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra of Egypt they committed suicide 30 AD, Egypt became province of Roman Empire Peace and Prosperity in Mediterranean world during reign of Augustus Pax Augusta (Augustan Peace) peace he established lasted for 2 centuries Came to be known as Pax Romana large # of public works throughout Empire roads bridges theaters amphitheaters bathing complexes Imperial portrait statues monuments (reliefs telling stories of rulers deeds) often presented in fashion with little historical fact meant to mold public opinion (Propaganda) Transfer from Republic to Empire 27 BC-when Senate awarded title of Augustus (Latin for Majestic) to Octavian Empire was continuation of Republic same constitutional offices Augustus recognized as “ princeps ” (first citizen) occupied all key positions consul and Imperator -root of Emperor (commander in chief) 12 BC- pontifex maximus (chief priest of state religion control of all aspects of Roman public life Augustus almost 32 when he came to power rule by “elders” came to end Roman portraits had to produce images of young head of state portraits were to present Augustus as an image of godlike leader who never aged lived until 14 AD-still presented as young (73 years old) Portraits of Augustus many different roles of Roman state models for many were Classical Greek statues
- Augustus as General (from Primaporta) found at his wife Livia’s villa pose of Polykleito’s Doryphoros but with right arm raised to address troops in manner of Aule Metele Portrait recognizable as Augustus also idealized head of Doryphoros (shape, brows, cap of layered hair) Not nude details give- political message diplomatic victory-addressing the people cupid at feet-divine descent Caesar’s family (the Julians) traced ancestry back to Venus-Cupid was her son
- Roman architecture very different than all other Ancient cultures Strength and versatility of technical use of concrete-allows for ability to create forms not possible with masonry crude appearance-often covered with stucco or marble Barrel Vault: also called tunnel vault extension of simple arch Pre-Romans used this arch (Masonry)-not as strong as Roman concrete Groin Vault: cross vault-intersection of two barrel vault of equal size at right angle Fenestrated sequence of groin vaults ability to create clerestory (light) Hemispherical Domes Romans able to surpass size of Mycenaean’s beehive-shaped Tholos dome Rested on concrete cylindrical drum Concrete gave ability to create Oculus with masonry, this element would weaken structure
- Romans known for Architecture whereas Greeks known for sculpture architecture built would not have been possible without concrete
- largest and most famous amphitheater: 70-82 A.D. -held nearly 50,000 spectators Ingenious Design steeply terraced seats -unobstructed viewing -there were many openings for entry and exit & easy access to seats -it had an ingenious hydraulic system -that was used so the floor of stadium could be flooded for sea battles -below ground -there were a maze of rooms for athletes, animals and personnel machinery to raise and lower stage sets lifting devices for bringing beasts into arena had an enormous awning -there were many smaller versions built throughout Italian peninsula and in Roman colonies Could not have been built without concrete Exterior shell about 160’ high-16 stories tall people sat according to social hierarchy Decoration of exterior -nothing to do with function facade -4 bands Ornamental Greek orders frame arches in 3 lower levels Tuscan, Ionic, Corinthian Corinthian Pilasters and brackets for holding flags in top level Columns and lintel to frame Arches mixing Greek orders with architectural form (not Greek) no structural support aesthetics-variety of surface unification of multistoried facade network of verticals and horizontals Vespasian didn’t live long enough to see Colosseum used Titus completed
- Emperor Hadrian was Trajan’s chosen successor also Spaniard loved arts author and architect Soon after Hadrian became emperor-construction of Pantheon started Pantheon It is the oldest standing domed structure in Rome One of best preserved buildings from antiquity Temple of all gods Since the 7th century, been used by the catholic church
- Oculus-30 feet diameter Coffers (sunken decorative panels)-lessened weight of dome also provided decorative pattern much of original marble veneer of walls, niches, and floor survived Romans were first to conceive architecture as units of space that could be shaped by enclosures plain brick drum of exterior defines the volume of interior space interior is single, unified structure (uninterrupted by supporting solids) pre-Roman architecture: form of enclosed space determined by solid objects-interrupted space instead of shaped it Light for illumination and symbolism (divinity) light passes through oculus and moves around interior throughout day reinforces idea of shaping space
- Figure 10-59 Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE. Bronze, 11’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Example of an Official Portrait of Marcus Aurelius still has pompous qualities of imperial iconography oversized for his horse hand raised to public his gesture lacks impressive authority of earlier imperial images Ruled: 161-180 AD He Spent most of ruling years in almost continuous warfare -he battled with the most serious invasions of Germanic tribes Rome had seen to that date -Marcus eventually invited them to become members of the empire -attempting to absorb and assimilate them rather than conquer and enslave them and died at encampment in what is now Austria may have been statue of enemy cowered beneath horse’s leg figuratively describing Marcus’s triumph over enemies Equestrian portraits were already popular in republican times -they were a common form of increasing one’s self-worth in imperial Rome The imagery was Derived from Greek images of athletes and heroes on horseback -these showed glorified triumphs and asserted power and prestige break with tradition of imperial portraiture: (not idealized god-like youth) -Signals a change -it shows a skeptical idea about Greek ideals of beauty and physical perfection -this piece did not emulate Greek forms as closely as earlier emperors had done aged, but different than republican veristic tradition -conveyed less dominance than other versions of the same type -he seems subdued weary, sad, worried strain of warfare and ruling an empire shows ruler’s character, thoughts The Roman fashion for beards came and went, like all fashions -Aurelius’s beard in this piece is significant - Beards were associated with Greek philosophers , and his beard signals his desire to be seen as a philosopher-king -he tried to live up to this ideal preserved because thought to portray Constantine (first Christian emperor of Rome) not melted down It Became one of the most influential works of ancient Rome -Charlemagne adopted it in order to glorify his new Holy Roman Empire -during 15th century-Donatello and Verrocchio both borrowed its forms in their monuments to mercenary soldiers along with non-classical relief sculpture, beginning of end of Classical art dominating Greco-Roman world
- During reign of Marcus Aurelius 200 years after Pax Romana (under Augustus) Roman power weakening Marcus’s son, Commodus (ruled 180-192 AD) assassinated Antonine dynasty ended Economy declining Official state religion losing ground to Eastern cults Christianity one of the religions they were losing ground to
- Figure 10-70 Battle of Romans and barbarians ( Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus ), from Rome, Italy, ca. 250–260 CE. Marble, 5’ high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Altemps, Rome. By 3rd century, burial very widespread even imperial family practicing Sarcophagi more famous unusually large sarcophagus found in 1621 decoration of battle between Romans and one of northern foes (probably Goths-east Germanic tribe, probably originally from modern Swedent) by date this was made, Roman art had undergone a fundamental transformation even further than Decursio from pedestal for Column of Antoninus Pius notice the spatial ambiguity bodies floating in space; no groundline the body is handled in more schematic, less anatomically correct way the figures on the surface form a series of clashing abstract patterns the artist and or patron no longer obsessed with classical realism instead, the primary characteristics are more about pattern, expression, violent action and uncertainty about place and time display of how old harmony and decorum of Roman art were dissolving central horseman right hand held out to show he holds no weapon one of sons of Trajan Decius boasting he is fearless commander assured of victory embraced popular Oriental mystery religion on forehead is carved emblem of Mithras, Persian god of light, truth, and victory over death
- Diocletian and the Tetrarchy Attempt to restore order to Roman Empire Diocletian Dio-cle-tian (r. 284-305 AD) troops proclaimed him emperor decided to share power with potential rivals 293 established tetrarchy (rule by four) adopted title Augustus of the East other 3 tetrarchs -Augustus of the West, and Eastern and Western Caesars Caesars made bonds with Augusti by marrying their daughters went well till Diocletian retired in 305 tetrarchic government collapsed civil war division of Roman Empire in East and West lasted through Middle Ages Latin West and Byzantine East
- Tetrarchic Portraiture 4 tetrarchs often portrayed together this piece is example in the round no attempt to capture individual appearances and personalities portrayal of 4 equal partners in power identical clad each holds a sword holding each other large cubical heads squat and shapeless bodies schematic drapery no emotion on faces beards distinguish older Augusti from younger Caesars
- Figure 10-77 Portrait of Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca. 315–330 CE. Marble, 8’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Constantine I (“the Great”) won a war during civil unrest about 20 years after fall of tetrarchs invaded Italy 312-won the battle of the Milvian Bridge to Rome-defeated Maxentius: took control of the capital attributed victory to Christian God next year, he and Licinius Li-cin-ius (co-emperor in the East) issued Edict of Milan; ended persecution of Christians Constantine and Licinius became foes 324, Constantine defeated and executed Licinius near Byzantium (modern day Istanbul, Turkey) Constantine founded “new Rome” at Byzantium named Constantinople (“City of Constantine”) 325 Christianity became official religion of Roman Empire paganism declined 337 Constantine baptized on his deathbed some attribute transfer of power from Rome to Constantinople and Recognition of Christianity as end of antiquity and beginning of Middle Ages Constantinian art transition from classical to medieval world builder of public works patron of Rome’s 1st Christian churches After victory over Maxentius- official portrait tradition with tetrarchic or soldier emperors was broken eternal youth ful head of state portion of statue 8 1/2’ tall head-greek proportions 7.5 heads tall (figure)=63.75’ tall brick core wooden torso covered with bronze head and limbs of marble Seated like images of Jupiter not nervous glance of 3rd century frontal with enormous distended eyes in broad, simple planes of head (waiting statues) personality not really present Colossal size, likening of emperor to Jupiter eyes directed at no-one or nothing of this world power absolute ruler