The all the content in this profile is completed by the teachers, students as well as other health care peoples.
thank you, all the respected peoples, for giving the information to complete this presentation.
this information is free to use by anyone.
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
Diseases related to Glycolysis
For every healthy organism, glycolysis is a very important process.
However mutations occur and distort the chain of reaction involved in the process.
When the malfunctioning of glycolysis occurs, this leads to several diseases
It is mostly Autosomal recessive diseases
Errors occur due to defective enzyme
The effected enzyme may be absent or deficient
The defect occur due to mutation in coding gene of the enzyme
If the enzyme
totally inactive the reaction will not occur (absent enzyme)
Decreased activity the reaction velocity will decrease (deficient enzyme)
When an enzyme of a metabolic pathway is absent or deficient, the entire pathway become abnormal.
A detailed account of process of gluconeogenesis with mechanisms of important enzymes.We shall also talk extensively about why the process is not the reversible o glycolysis as is commonly perceived. Also focused on its regulatory aspect in conjunction with glycolysis.
Gluconeogenesis: Defined as biosynthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
-Gluconeogenesis: an intro
-Thermodynamic Barriers (Each barrier detail explanation)
- Energetics of gluconeogenesis
-Substrates of gluconeogenesis (each substrate and pathway explained)
-Regulation of Gluconeogenesis, hormonal and transcriptional regulation
#medical #students #doctors #foodandnutrition #nurses #NEET #PCM #doctors #nutritioneducation #mscdfsm #dietician #nationaldieticians #RD #REGISTERED #DIETICIANS
#NUTRITIONIST #INTERNATIONAL DIETICIANS
This content is made for all student of medical ,nutrition ,doctors ,zoology ,chemistry ,medical who are still preparing for examination .feel free to give suggestion.
The all the content in this profile is completed by the teachers, students as well as other health care peoples.
thank you, all the respected peoples, for giving the information to complete this presentation.
this information is free to use by anyone.
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
Diseases related to Glycolysis
For every healthy organism, glycolysis is a very important process.
However mutations occur and distort the chain of reaction involved in the process.
When the malfunctioning of glycolysis occurs, this leads to several diseases
It is mostly Autosomal recessive diseases
Errors occur due to defective enzyme
The effected enzyme may be absent or deficient
The defect occur due to mutation in coding gene of the enzyme
If the enzyme
totally inactive the reaction will not occur (absent enzyme)
Decreased activity the reaction velocity will decrease (deficient enzyme)
When an enzyme of a metabolic pathway is absent or deficient, the entire pathway become abnormal.
A detailed account of process of gluconeogenesis with mechanisms of important enzymes.We shall also talk extensively about why the process is not the reversible o glycolysis as is commonly perceived. Also focused on its regulatory aspect in conjunction with glycolysis.
Gluconeogenesis: Defined as biosynthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors
-Gluconeogenesis: an intro
-Thermodynamic Barriers (Each barrier detail explanation)
- Energetics of gluconeogenesis
-Substrates of gluconeogenesis (each substrate and pathway explained)
-Regulation of Gluconeogenesis, hormonal and transcriptional regulation
#medical #students #doctors #foodandnutrition #nurses #NEET #PCM #doctors #nutritioneducation #mscdfsm #dietician #nationaldieticians #RD #REGISTERED #DIETICIANS
#NUTRITIONIST #INTERNATIONAL DIETICIANS
This content is made for all student of medical ,nutrition ,doctors ,zoology ,chemistry ,medical who are still preparing for examination .feel free to give suggestion.
#medical #students #doctors #foodandnutrition #nurses #NEET #PCM #doctors #nutritioneducation #mscdfsm #dietician #nationaldieticians #RD #REGISTERED #DIETICIANS
#NUTRITIONIST #INTERNATIONAL DIETICIANS
This content is made for all student of medical ,nutrition ,doctors ,zoology ,chemistry ,medical who are still preparing for examination .feel free to give suggestion.
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM : GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. Glycolysis consists of an energy-requiring phase followed by an energy-releasing phase.
What is glycolysis?
Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates. Glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway, meaning that it evolved long ago, and it is found in the great majority of organisms alive today^{2,3}
2,3
start superscript, 2, comma, 3, end superscript.
In organisms that perform cellular respiration, glycolysis is the first stage of this process. However, glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen, and many anaerobic organisms—organisms that do not use oxygen—also have this pathway.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Digital Tools and AI for Teaching Learning and Research
gluconeogenesis
1. GOALS FOR LECTURE 10:
Describe the biological purpose of gluconeogenesis. Summarize the physiological states
where gluconeogenesis would occur.
Identify the biochemical reactions that are identical between glycolysis and
gluconeogenesis, and those that are distinct. Rationalize why the distinct reactions must be
different between the two pathways.
Describe the involvement of the mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum in
gluconeogenesis.
Describe the allosteric effectors that regulate key enzymes in gluconeogenesis. Contrast
the allosteric regulation of gluconeogenesis with the allosteric regulation of enzymes in
glycolysis. Rationalize the roles of these effectors based on cellular energy needs.
Recommended reading:
TOPIC STRYER, 4th edition DEVLIN, 5th edition
Gluconeogenesis Ch. 16, 450-460 Ch. 14, 629-643
Gluconeogenesis
The energy requirement of the brain is derived almost entirely from glucose. Since
nerve cells store very little glycogen, the brain and certain other tissues including cornea and
red blood cells depend on a constant supply of glucose in the blood. One of the important
functions of the liver is to maintain the blood glucose level. Degradation of liver glycogen is
the primary source of blood glucose in the early fasting state. However, when glycogen
stores are depleted, the liver is able to synthesize glucose from lactate, via
gluconeogenesis. In the Cori cycle, depicted below, gluconeogenesis in the liver supports
anaerobic glycolysis in red blood cells.
10.1
2. Gluconeogenesis uses many of the same reactions as glycolysis, but running in
reverse. Among the glycolytic reactions, recall that all are readily reversed with the
exception of the reactions catalyzed by hexokinase/glucokinase, phosphofructokinase, and
pyruvate kinase. Previously, we have seen that these reactions are regulated. In
gluconeogenesis, they are bypassed.
Pyruvate kinase is bypassed in two steps
Conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate occurs by a combination of two
reactions, and requires hydrolysis of two ATP to ADP. In the first reaction, pyruvate is
converted to oxaloacetate by pyruvate carboxlyase, which uses biotin as a cofactor.
This reaction takes place in the mitochondrial matrix and is also used to generate
oxaloacetate as an intermediate in the TCA cycle, as will be discussed later. This reaction
depends on an ATP-dependent carboxylation of biotin.
10.2
3. To be used for gluconeogenesis, the oxaloacetate must be transferred back into the
cytoplasm. However, mitochondria lack an efficient transporter for oxaloacetate. Therefore,
oxaloacetate is reduced to malate, by malate dehydrogenase which converts one molecule
of NADH to NAD+. Malate is then transported out and reoxidized to oxaloacetate,
regenerating NADH from NAD+ in the cytoplasm.
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase simultaneously decarboxylates and
phosphorylates oxaloacetate to generate phosphoenolpyruvate. GTP is used as the
phosphoryl donor. Decarboxylation drives this reaction, which would otherwise be
endergonic.
10.3
4. Glucokinase and phosphofructokinase are bypassed by phosphatases
Phosphoenolpyruvate is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by a simple
reversal of glycolytic steps 9, 8, 7, 6, 5 and 4, which all operate near equilibrium. Fructose-
1, 6-bisphosphate is dephosphorylated by fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, releasing free
phosphate, and bypassing phosphofructokinase. Fructose-6-phosphate is converted to
glucose-6-phosphate by a phosphoglucose isomerase. Glucose-6-phosphate is
converted to glucose by glucose-6-phosphatase, bypassing glucokinase.
Glucose-6-phosphatase is found in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum rather
than in the cytoplasm. Thus, for the final step of gluconeogenesis, G6P must be
transported into the ER, the phosphate is cleaved off, and then glucose and phosphate are
transported back out. Deficiencies in either glucose-6-phosphatase or any of the three
transporters result in von Gierke’s disease, with symptoms of hypoglycemia, lacticacidemia
and ketoacidosis after mild fasting.
Note that these two phosphatase reactions do not reverse the reciprocal kinase
reactions, because ATP is not regenerated.
The stoichiometry for gluconeogenesis from pyruvate is:
2 pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 GTP + 2 NADH + 6 H2O Õ
glucose + 4 ADP + 2 GDP + 6 Pi + 2 NAD+ + 2 H+
By contrast, the stoichiometry for conversion of glucose to pyruvate by glycolysis is:
glucose + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + 2NAD+ Õ 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H2O
In cycling from glucose to pyruvate to glucose in the Cori cycle, four high-energy
phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This expenditure of energy is required to turn an
energetically unfaovable process (the reversal of glycolysis, ∆Go’ = +20 kcal/mol) into a
favorable one (gluconeogenesis, ∆Go’ = -9 kcal/mol). The extra cost of nucleotide
hydrolysis is borne by the liver, another example of its altruism toward other tissues.
10.4
6. Alternate substrates for gluconeogenesis
Any precursor which can be converted to pyruvate can ultimately be converted to
glucose by gluconeogenesis. These precursors include all amino acids except for leucine
and lysine and propionate.
Ethanol consumption and gluconeogenesis
Ethanol is metabolized primarily in the liver, by alcohol dehydrogenase.
CH3CH2OH + NAD+ CH3CHO + NADH + H+
This reaction elevates the ratio between NADH and NAD+ in liver cytosol. High
NADH levels block the conversion of cytoplasmic malate to oxaloacetate, preventing
gluconeogenesis. Similarly, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is forced to run
backward by high [NADH], so glycolysis is also inhibited. Conversion of lactate to
pyruvate by lactate dehydrogenase is also inhibited by high [NADH]. Consequently,
consumption of large amounts of ethanol can result in hypoglycemia and mild lactic acidosis.
Severe hypoglycemia can cause irreversible damage to the central nervous system, which
in its early stages might be mistaken for simple intoxication.
10.6
7. Regulation of gluconeogenesis
The enzymes of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver are reciprocally
regulated so that either glucose is converted to pyruvate or pyruvate is converted to
glucose. Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, which we have already seen serves to activate
phosphofructokinase, is an inhibitor of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Because of this
reciprocal effect, only one of the two enzymes is active at any given time.
The liver also contains glucokinase inhibitor protein, which is activated by fructose-6-
phosphate. When bound to F6P, glucokinase inhibitor protein sequesters and inactivates
glucokinase, shutting down the first step in glycolysis. There is no equivalent inhibitory
protein for hexokinase, so accumulation of F6P shuts down glycolysis and enables
activation of gluconeogenesis only in the liver. Allosteric regulation of gluconeogenesis and
glycolysis is summarized below:
10.7
8. Hormonal control of gluconeogenesis
As with glycolysis, glucagon-dependent protein phosphorylation also regulates
enzyme activities in gluconeogenesis. Recall that F-2,6-BP levels are regulated by
glucagon, with high glucagon (low blood sugar) favoring conversion of F-2,6-BP back into
F6P
In addition, glucagon activates lipases is adipose tissue, promoting release of fatty
acids into the bloodstream. These fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria of liver,
resulting in high concentrations of acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA acts as an allosteric activator of
pyruvate carboxylase.
Both insulin and glucagon regulate the transcription of bypass enzymes: insulin
inhibits transcription of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, and glucagon activates its
transcription.
10.8