1) Geoinformatics deals with the capture, classification, storage, processing, portrayal, and dissemination of spatial information. It involves technologies like remote sensing, GIS, GPS, and photogrammetry.
2) It is used for applications like land use mapping, precision agriculture, crop discrimination and yield monitoring, soil mapping, and monitoring of land degradation.
3) Hyperspectral data and narrowband vegetation indices derived from it allow detailed analysis of crop biochemical and biophysical properties for improved classification and mapping of agricultural crops.
GIS and Remote Sensing in Diagnosis and Management of Problem Soil with audio...KaminiKumari13
GIS and Remote Sensing in Diagnosis and Management of Problem Soil for agriculture, soil science, agronomy, forestry, land management and planning with audio by Dr. Kamini Roy
The Contingency plans cover contingency strategies to be taken up by farmers in response to major weather related aberrations such as delay in onset and breaks in monsoon causing early, mid and late season droughts, floods, unusual rains, extreme weather events such as heat wave, cold wave, frost, hailstorm and cyclone.
GIS and Remote Sensing in Diagnosis and Management of Problem Soil with audio...KaminiKumari13
GIS and Remote Sensing in Diagnosis and Management of Problem Soil for agriculture, soil science, agronomy, forestry, land management and planning with audio by Dr. Kamini Roy
The Contingency plans cover contingency strategies to be taken up by farmers in response to major weather related aberrations such as delay in onset and breaks in monsoon causing early, mid and late season droughts, floods, unusual rains, extreme weather events such as heat wave, cold wave, frost, hailstorm and cyclone.
Implementation and impact of IPM. Safety issues in pesticide use. Political, ...Nikhil Kumar
IPM packages tested at several research centres vis-a-vis the farmers’ practices indicate superiority of the former. IPM practices enabled reduction in the number of chemical sprays. IPM system also resulted in increase of natural enemies by three-fold, reduced the insecticide and environmental pollution (Dhaliwal and Arora, 1996).
An integrated strategy for the management of major pests and diseases is possible by
I. breeding new varieties with built-in resistance,
II. evolving efficient methods of pest control through pest surveys and monitoring, and
III. biological control of pests with the help of conservation and augmentation of natural enemies like parasites, predators and insect pathogens.
The
PRECISION FARMING
It is an approach where inputs are utilized in precise amounts to get increased average yields, compared to traditional cultivation techniques. It is also known as precision Agriculture, A science of improving crop yield and assisting management decisions using high technology sensor and analysis tools. It is an approach to farm management that uses information technology (IT).
this slide includes recent approaches to evaluate cropping system.
It includes system profitability,relative production efficiency,land use efficienct(LUE),Calculation of LUE,energy efficiency,specific energy,Rotational intensity,Cropping intensity,Multiple cropping index(MCI),Land equivalent ratio (LER),Relative yields total (RYT),Crop equivalent yields (CEY),Relative Spread Index
GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable rate applications, and yield mapping. GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility field conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness.
A STUDY ON WEED DISCRIMINATION THROUGH WAVELET TRANSFORM, TEXTURE FEATURE EXT...ijcsit
Texture based weed classification has played an important role in agricultural applications. In the recent years weed classification based on wavelet transform is an effective method. But the feature extraction is main issue for proper classification of weed species. In this paper, the issue of statistical and texture
classification based on wavelet transform has been analysed. The efficient texture feature extraction
methods are developed for weed discrimination. Three group feature vector can be constructed by the mean
and standard deviation of the wavelet statistical features (WSF), Texture feature as Contrast, Cluster
Shade, Cluster Prominence and Local Homogeneity (WCSPH) and Energy, Correlation, Cluster Shade,
Cluster Prominence and Entropy features (WECSPE) which are derived from the sub-bands of the wavelet
decomposition and are used for classification. Experimental results show that Rbio33 Wavelet with
WECSPE texture feature obtaining high degree of success rate in classification.
Implementation and impact of IPM. Safety issues in pesticide use. Political, ...Nikhil Kumar
IPM packages tested at several research centres vis-a-vis the farmers’ practices indicate superiority of the former. IPM practices enabled reduction in the number of chemical sprays. IPM system also resulted in increase of natural enemies by three-fold, reduced the insecticide and environmental pollution (Dhaliwal and Arora, 1996).
An integrated strategy for the management of major pests and diseases is possible by
I. breeding new varieties with built-in resistance,
II. evolving efficient methods of pest control through pest surveys and monitoring, and
III. biological control of pests with the help of conservation and augmentation of natural enemies like parasites, predators and insect pathogens.
The
PRECISION FARMING
It is an approach where inputs are utilized in precise amounts to get increased average yields, compared to traditional cultivation techniques. It is also known as precision Agriculture, A science of improving crop yield and assisting management decisions using high technology sensor and analysis tools. It is an approach to farm management that uses information technology (IT).
this slide includes recent approaches to evaluate cropping system.
It includes system profitability,relative production efficiency,land use efficienct(LUE),Calculation of LUE,energy efficiency,specific energy,Rotational intensity,Cropping intensity,Multiple cropping index(MCI),Land equivalent ratio (LER),Relative yields total (RYT),Crop equivalent yields (CEY),Relative Spread Index
GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used for farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor guidance, crop scouting, variable rate applications, and yield mapping. GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility field conditions such as rain, dust, fog, and darkness.
A STUDY ON WEED DISCRIMINATION THROUGH WAVELET TRANSFORM, TEXTURE FEATURE EXT...ijcsit
Texture based weed classification has played an important role in agricultural applications. In the recent years weed classification based on wavelet transform is an effective method. But the feature extraction is main issue for proper classification of weed species. In this paper, the issue of statistical and texture
classification based on wavelet transform has been analysed. The efficient texture feature extraction
methods are developed for weed discrimination. Three group feature vector can be constructed by the mean
and standard deviation of the wavelet statistical features (WSF), Texture feature as Contrast, Cluster
Shade, Cluster Prominence and Local Homogeneity (WCSPH) and Energy, Correlation, Cluster Shade,
Cluster Prominence and Entropy features (WECSPE) which are derived from the sub-bands of the wavelet
decomposition and are used for classification. Experimental results show that Rbio33 Wavelet with
WECSPE texture feature obtaining high degree of success rate in classification.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Remote sensing and GIS are two interrelated fields of geoinformatics that deal with the collection, analysis, and display of data about the earth's surface. Remote sensing is the science and technique of measuring and recording the properties of objects or phenomena without physical contact, using electromagnetic radiation (EMR) data from aircraft and satellites ¹. GIS is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing the spatial and statistical aspects of the data, using databases and visual representations ¹.
Remote sensing and GIS techniques can be used to monitor the
(1) Remote sensing and GIS applications in earth and
Object Classification of Satellite Images Using Cluster Repulsion Based Kerne...IOSR Journals
Abstract: We investigated the Classification of satellite images and multispectral remote sensing data .we
focused on uncertainty analysis in the produced land-cover maps .we proposed an efficient technique for
classifying the multispectral satellite images using Support Vector Machine (SVM) into road area, building area
and green area. We carried out classification in three modules namely (a) Preprocessing using Gaussian
filtering and conversion from conversion of RGB to Lab color space image (b) object segmentation using
proposed Cluster repulsion based kernel Fuzzy C- Means (FCM) and (c) classification using one-to-many SVM
classifier. The goal of this research is to provide the efficiency in classification of satellite images using the
object-based image analysis. The proposed work is evaluated using the satellite images and the accuracy of the
proposed work is compared to FCM based classification. The results showed that the proposed technique has
achieved better results reaching an accuracy of 79%, 84%, 81% and 97.9% for road, tree, building and vehicle
classification respectively.
Keywords:-Satellite image, FCM Clustering, Classification, SVM classifier.
precise weed management is very useful under large land holdings which reduces cost of cultivation to a greater extent. remote sensing plays a major role in site specific weed management
To meet the various information requirements in forest management, different data sources like field survey, aerial photography, and satellite imagery is used, depending on the level of detail required and the extension of the area under study.
REMOTE SENSING AND GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS AM Publications
Remote sensing technology's increasing accessibility helps us observe research and learn about our globe in ways we could only imagine a generation ago. Guides to profound knowledge of historical, conceptual and practical uses of remote sensing which is increasing GIS technology. This paper will go briefly through remote sensing benefits, history, technology and the GIS and remote sensing integration and their applications. Remote sensing (RS) is used in mapping the predicted and actual species and dominates the ecosystem canopy.
Automatic traffic light controller for emergency vehicle using peripheral int...IJECEIAES
Traffic lights play such important role in traffic management to control the traffic on the road. Situation at traffic light area is getting worse especially in the event of emergency cases. During traffic congestion, it is difficult for emergency vehicle to cross the road which involves many junctions. This situation leads to unsafe conditions which may cause accident. An Automatic Traffic Light Controller for Emergency Vehicle is designed and developed to help emergency vehicle crossing the road at traffic light junction during emergency situation. This project used Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC) to program a priority-based traffic light controller for emergency vehicle. During emergency cases, emergency vehicle like ambulance can trigger the traffic light signal to change from red to green in order to make clearance for its path automatically. Using Radio Frequency (RF) the traffic light operation will turn back to normal when the ambulance finishes crossing the road. Result showed the design is capable to response within the range of 55 meters. This project was successfully designed, implemented and tested.
Remote sensing is the observation of an object from a distance.
It is the art of identifying, observing and measuring an object without coming into direct contact with it by detecting and measuring the radiation of different wavelengths reflected from distant objects.
Identifying Citronella Plants From UAV Imagery Using Support Vector MachineTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
High-resolution imagery taken from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is now often used as an
alternative in monitoring the agronomic plants compared to satellite imagery. This paper presents a
method to identify Citronella among other plants based on UAV imagery. The method utilizes Support
Vector Machine (SVM) to classify Citronella among other plants according to the extraction of texture
feature. The implementation of the method was evaluated using two group of datasets: 1) consists of
Citronella, Kaffir Lime, other green plants, vacant soil, and buildings, and 2) consists of Citronella and
paddy rice plants. The evaluation results show that the proposed method can identify Citronella on the first
group of datasets with an accuracy 94.23% and Kappa value 88.48%, whereas on the second group of
datasets with an accuracy 100% and Kappa value 100%.
Similar to Geoinformatics For Precision Agriculture (20)
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
2. Geoinformatics
Geo informatics is "the science and technology dealing
with the structure and character of spatial information, its
capture, its classification and qualification, its storage,
processing, portrayal and dissemination, including the
infrastructure necessary to secure optimal use of this
information“
Similarly, Ehlers (2003) defines geoinformatics as "the
art, science or technology dealing with the acquisition,
storage, processing, production, presentation and
dissemination of geoinformation".
3. CONCEPT
Geoinformatics is integrated technology for collection, transformation and
generation of information from integrated spatial and non-spatial data bases.
Remote sensing.
It is a powerful tool for assessment, monitoring, planning and management of
agricultural research and development.
Management of agricultural resources is a major activity of conservation
practices and land/water resources aimed at increasing the food production.
Substantial increase in crop production could be achieved by bringing additional
land under cultivation, improved crop management technology through use of
high yielding, input responsive and stress tolerant crop varieties, improved pest
control as well as by increasing irrigation and fertilizer inputs.
These inputs together with reliable information on i) existing land use and
acreage under various crops, ii) soil types and extent of problem soils, ii)
monitoring of surface water bodies (to determine by water availability in irrigation
systems) for ground water development and (iv) management of natural calamities
etc. Will enable formulation of appropriate strategies to sustain the pace of
agricultural development.
4. Agrogeoinformation it is the key information in the agricultural
decision making and policy formulation process.
Agrogeoinformatics it is a branch of geoinformatics about
handling digital agroinformation by collecting, processing,
storing, archiving, preservation, retrieving, transmitting,
accessing,visualisation, analysing, synthesizing, presenting and
disseminating agrogeoinformation.
5. Tools and Principles of the Geoinformatics
1) Cartographic principles: involve map compilation, map design,
and map visualization and production in analogue or digital
computer environment.
2) Remote sensing: involves the acquisition of spatial data of the
environment without physical contact with the objects or features
being sensed by using electromagnetic energy radiation,
interaction and detection principles in analogue or digital formats.
3)Photogrammetric principles: involve the art and scientific
processes of obtaining reliable information about the physical
environment by interpreting remotely sensed aerospace data
(aerial photographs and satellite imageries) in analogue or digital
formats.
4)Surveying principles: involve the use of fundamental methods
(processes) and technologies (instruments) to determine the
precise position and dimensions of points(features) on earths
surface and the presentation of the results in digital format.
6. 5) Global Positioning Systems (GPS): involve precise
surveying (determination of position and dimensions of points)
by applying resection and satellite constellation principles and the
presentation of the results in analogue (maps, tables) or digital
formats.
6)Geographic Information Systems (GIS) principles: involve
data gathering, data processing, database management, data
modeling and visualization in a digital computer environment.
7)Automated data capture systems: include multi-spectral
remote sensing processes, GPS data, map digitization and
scanning, and computer input and output technologies.
8. Application of geoinformatics includes
-land use mapping and farm planning,
-assessing crop variability and performance tracking,
-plant nutrition assessments, in-field plant vigour zone
delineation,
-irrigation and drainage assessments,
-storm, frost or fire crop damage such and insurance
assessments,
-crop yield management, monitoring and prediction,
-impacts of soil compaction,
-pest and disease management,
-spatial management systems and databases,
-sustainable agricultural engineering
-increase production, reduce costs and manage their land
more efficiently
9. CROP DISCRIMINATION
Currently computers are being used for automation and to expand
decision support systems DSS) for the agricultural research.
Recently, geographic information systems (GIS) and remote
sensing technology has come up with a capable role in agricultural
research, predominantly in crop yield prediction in addition to crop
suitability studies and site specific source allocation.
Role of geoinformatics to discriminate different crops at various
levels of classification, monitoring crop growth and prediction of
the crop yield has been briefly presented.
10. There is availability of high spatial as well as spectral resolutions
imageries and also non-imaging spectroradiometer. With the use of
remote sensing imaging and non-imaging data, we can easily
characterize the different species.
Different crops show distinct phonological characteristics and
timings according to their nature of germination, tillering,
flowering, boll formation (cotton), ripening etc.
Even for the same crop and growing season, the duration and
magnitude of each phonological stage can differ between the
varieties, which introduce data variability for crop type
discrimination with imaging systems.
Agricultural crops are significantly better characterized,
classified, modelled and mapped using hyperspectral data.
11. 1) Feature Extraction
Feature extraction is the process of defining image
characteristics or features which effectively provides
meaningful information for image interpretation or
classification. The ultimate goals of feature extraction
are:
1. Effectiveness and efficiency in classification.
2. Avoiding redundancy of data.
3. Identifying useful spatial as well as spectral features.
4. Maximizing the pattern discrimination.
12. 2) Role of Texture in Classification
In general, it is possible to distinguish between the regular
textures manifested by manmade objects from the irregular manner
that natural objects exhibit texture.
Hence, the texture characteristic can be used to discriminate
between divergent objects. Therefore, they support their
segmentation from remotely sensed data, both the conventional
texture analysis and the grey level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM)
methods describing the grey value relationships in the
neighbourhood of the current pixel.
13. 3) Grey Level Co-Occurrence Matrix (GLCM)
The GLCM can be viewed as a two dimensional histogram of
the frequency with which pairs of grey level pixels occur in a
given spatial relationship, defined by a specific inter-pixel distance
and a given pixel orientation.
Hence, in the segmentation of urban objects, texture analysis is
usually performed within a GLCM matrix space. A variety of
texture measures can be extracted from the GLCM.
Four useful measures that can be derived from the probability
density are energy, variance, dissimilarity and homogeneity where
energy measures the uniformity of the texture; variance measures
the heterogeneity of the pixel values.
Similar to contrast dissimilarity measures, the difference
between adjoining pixels and homogeneity measures the tonal
uniformity.
14. 4) Local Binary Pattern (LBP)
It is a simple yet very efficient texture operator which labels the
pixels of an image by thresholding the neighbourhood of each pixel
and considers the result as a binary number.
Due to its discriminative power and computational plainness,
LBP texture operator has become a popular approach in various
applications.
Possibly, the most important assets of the LBP operator in real-
world applications is its robustness to monotonic gray-scale
changes instigated, for example, by illumination differences.
Spatial feature extraction for crop type discrimination works well
if we have high spatial resolution satellite imagery.
Also spatial information is also useful in spectral based
classification for visual interpretation in supervised learning.
15. SPECTRAL FEATURES FOR CROP CLASSIFICATION
Spectral characteristics of green vegetation have very noticeable
features. Two valleys in the visible portion of the spectrum are
determined by the pigments contained in the plant.
Chlorophyll absorbs strongly in the blue (0.4-0.5um) and red
(0.68 um) regions, also known As the chlorophyll absorption
bands. Chlorophyll is the primary photosynthetic pigment in green
plants. This is the reason for the human eye perceiving healthy
vegetation as green.
When the plant is subjected to stress that hinders normal growth
and chlorophyll production, there is less absorption in the red and
blue regions and the amount of reflection in the red waveband
increases.
16. a)Band Selection
Band selection is one of the important steps in hyperspectral
remote sensing. There are two conceptually different approaches
of band selection like unsupervised and supervised.
Due to availability of hundreds of spectral bands, there may be
same values in several bands which increase the data redundancy.
To avoid the data redundancy and to get distinct features from
available hundreds of bands, we have to choose the specific
bands by studying the reflectance behavior of crops.
17. b) Narrowband Vegetation Indices
Spectral indices assume that the combined interaction
between a small numbers of wavelengths is adequate to describe
the biochemical or biophysical interaction between light and
matter.
Examples include most of the pigment-oriented indices, all
indices formulated for the red edge, several water absorption
indices and indices that use three or more wavelengths.
Vegetation properties measured with hyperspectral vegetation
indices (HVIS) can be divided into three main categories:
(1) structure,
(2) biochemistry and
(3) plant physiology/stress
18. 1) Structural properties: These properties include fractional
cover, green leaf biomass, leaf area index (LAI), senesced
biomass and fraction absorbed photosynthetically active
radiation (FPAR). Majority of the indices developed for
structural analysis were formulated for broadband systems and
have narrowband, hyperspectral equivalents.
2) Biochemical properties: It includes water, pigments
(chlorophyll, carotenoids anthocyanins), other nitrogen-rich
compounds (proteins) and plant structural materials (lignin and
cellulose).
3) Physiological and stress indices: It measure delicate changes
due to a stress-induced change in the state of xanthophylls',
changes in chlorophyll content, fluorescence or changes in leaf
moisture.
19. Different Narrowband vegetation indices
1)Normalised difference vegetation index
2)Simple ratio
3)Enhanced vegetation index
4)Atmospherically resistant vegetation index
5)Sum green index
6)Red edge normalised difference vegetation index
7)Vogelmenn red edge index
8)Structure intensive pigment index
9)Photochemical reflectance index
10)Disease water stress index
20. IMPORTANCE OF HYPERSPECTRAL REMOTE SENSING
Several advanced hyperspectral imaging systems developed are
playing important role for agricultural application.
Hyperion imaging spectrometer onboard the Earth Observing
One (EO-1) satellite has provided significantly enhanced data over
conventional multi-spectral remote sensing systems.
Hyperspectral narrowband (HNBS) and hyperspectral vegetation
indices (HVIS) derived from EO-1 and field spectral measurements
in the 400-2500 nm spectrum allow us to study very specific
characteristics of agricultural crops.
Availability of hyperspectral data overcomes the constraints and
limitations of low spectral resolution (multispectral).
Hyperspectral data gives detailed information about crops but it
is necessary to select appropriate bands, Narrowband vegetation
indices plays important role for mapping plant biophysical and
biochemical properties of agricultural crops (BB-PACS).
21. YIELD MONITORING
Estimation of crop yield well-before the harvest at regional and
national scale is imperative for planning at micro-level and
predominantly the demand for crop insurance and plays a significant
role in economic development.
Currently, it is being done by extensive field surveys and crop
cutting experimentation. This enables decision makers and planners to
predict the amount of crop import and export which is based on
ground based field surveys.
Conventional methods have been found to be expensive, time
consuming and are prone to large errors due to incomplete and
inaccurate ground observations leading to deprived crop area
estimations and crop yield assessment.
In most of the developing countries, required data is, generally,
available too late for any appropriate decision making.
Data captured through remote sensing has the prospective, capacity
and the potential to exhibit spatial information at global scale.
22. Approaches of yield monitoring
1)Aerial Photography
To obtain crop yield information, one must be able to recognize tone, pattern,
texture and other features. Crop yield information is used in conjunction with crop
area statistics to obtain crop production.
There are two distinct aspects of yield determination:
a). Forecast of yield based on characteristics of the plant or crop and relationship
based on experience in prior and
b) Estimates of the yield known from the actual weight of the harvest crop for the
current year.
2)Multispectral scanners (MSS) Ability to differentiate wheat from other
agricultural crops using multispectral data in a computer format with pattern
recognition techniques. An important consideration in the task of species identification
is the stage of growth of the crop.
3)Radar It has been pointed out that many of the radar studies have concentrated on
seasonal change between crops and that numerous variables must be considered in
making even the simplest determinations.
4)Satellite Data Remote sensing data has been proved effective in predicting crop
yield and provide representative and spatially exhaustive information on the
development of the model for the crop growth monitoring. Normalised difference
vegetation index (NDVI) has been used to estimate the yield of rice.
23. SOIL MAPPING
Soil maps are required on different scales varying from 1:1 million to 1:4,000
to meet the requirements of planning at various levels. As the scale of a soil map
has direct correlation with the information content and field investigations that are
carried out, small scale soil maps of 1:1 million are needed for macro-level
planning at national level.
Soil maps at 1:250,000 scale provide information for planning at regional or
state level with generalised interpretation of soil information for determining the
suitability and limitations for several agricultural uses and requires less intensity
of soil observations and time.
Soil maps at 1:50,000 scale where association of soil series are depicted, serve
the purpose for planning resources conservation and optimum land use at district
level and require moderate intensity of observations in the field. Large scale soil
maps at 1:8,000 or 1:4,000 scale are specific purpose maps which can be
generated through high intensity of field observations based on maps at 1:50,000
scale of large scale aerial photographs or very high resolution satellite data.
24. Remote Sensing for Soil and Land Degradation Mapping
Though conventional soil surveys were providing information on soils they are
Subjective, time consuming and laborious.
Remote sensing techniques have significantly contributed speeding up
conventional soil survey programmes. In conventional approach. approximately
80 per cent of total work requires extensive field traverses in identification of soil
types and mapping their boundaries and 20 per cent in studying soil profiles
topographical features and for other works.
Satellite data were utilised in preparing small scale soil resource maps showing
soil subgroups and their association.
MSS are used for mapping soils and degraded lands like eroded lands, ravine
lands, salt. affected soils and shifting cultivation areas.
At NRSA, the maps of salt affected soils for entire country have been prepared
at 1:250,000 scale using satellite data from LandSat TM / IRS sensors.
Salt affected soils are also mapped at 1:50,000 scale on limited scale using
satellite data.
Multitemporal satellite data is being used for monitoring salt affected soils on
operational basis.
25. Soil Mapping Methods
Multispectral satellite data are being used for mapping soil up to family
association level (1:50,000). Methodology in most of the cases involves visual
interpretation. However, computer aided digital image processing technique
has also been used for mapping soil and advocated to be a potential tool.
1)Visual Image Interpretation
Visual interpretation is based on shape, size, tone, shadow, texture, pattern,
site and association. This has the advantage of being relatively simple and
inexpensive.
Soil mapping needs identification of a number of elements. The elements
which are of major importance for soil survey are land type, vegetation, land-
use, slope and relief. Soils are surveyed and mapped, following a three-tier
approach, comprising interpretation of remote sensing imagery and aerial
photograph, field survey (including laboratory analysis of soil samples) and
cartography.
Several workers have concluded that the technology of remote sensing
provides better efficiency than the conventional soil survey methods at the
reconnaissance (1:50,000) and detailed (1:10,000) scale of mapping.
26. 2) Computer-Aided Approach
Numerical analysis of remote sensing data utilising the computers
has been developed because of requirement to analyse faster and
extract information from the large quantities of data. Computer
aided techniques utilise the spectral variations for classification.
Pattern recognition in remote sensing assists in identification of
homogeneous areas, which can be Used as a base for carrying out
detailed field investigations and generating models between remote
sensing and field parameters. Major problem with conventional soil
survey and soil cartography is accurate delineation of boundary.
Field observations based on conventional soil survey are tedious
and time consuming. Remote sensing data in conjunction with
ancillary data provide the best alternative, with a better delineation
of soil mapping units. However, there is need to have an automated
method for accurate soil boundary delineation with a
transdisciplinary and integrated approach.
27. FERTILISER RECOMMENDATION USING
GEOSPATIAL TECHNOLOGIES
Geospatial technologies for precision farming (PF) involves an
integrated technology such as GPS, GIS, remote sensing, variable
rate technology (VRT), crop models, yield monitors and precision
irrigation. Information technology such as the internet is good means
for some agri-business companies to deliver their services and
products.
Site Specific nutrient management (SSNM) approach, relatively
new approach of nutrient recommendations, is mainly based on the
indigenous nutrient supply from the soil nutrient demand of the crop
for achieving targeted yield. The SSNM recommendations could be
evolved on the basis of solely plant analysis or soil cum plant
analysis
28. PLANT ANALYSIS BASED SSNM
nutrient status of the crop is the best indicator of soil
nutrient supplies as well as nutrient demand of the crops.
Thus, the approach is built around plant analysis. initially,
SSNM was tried for lowland rice.
Five key steps for developing field-specific fertilizer NPK
1. Selection of the Yield Goal
2. Assessment of Crop Nutrient Requirement by
quantitative evaluation of fertility of tropical soils
(QUEFTS) models.
3. Indigenous nutrient supply (INS)
4. Computation of Fertilizer Nutrient Rates
5. Dynamic Adjustment of N Rates
29. SOIL-CUM-PLANT ANALYSIS BASED SSNM
In this case, nutrient availability in the soil, plant nutrient
demands for a higher target yield (not less than 80% of Ymax) and
RE of applied nutrients are considered for developing fertiliser use
schedule to achieve maximum economic yield of a crop variety.
In order to ascertain desired crop growth, not limited by apparent
or hidden huger of nutrients, soil is analyzed for all macro and
micronutrients well-before sowing/planting.
Total nutrient requirement for the targeted yield and RE are
estimated with the help of documented information available for
similar crop growing environments.
Field-specific fertiliser rates are then suggested to meet the
nutrient demand of the crop (variety) without depleting soil
reserves.
30. Approaches :-
1) Decision Support Systems
2) Decision Rules To Estimate Site-Specific
Nutrient Management Parameters
3) Current Versions of Nutrient Expert