This document defines several key genetic terms and concepts: - Genes are the basic units of heredity located on chromosomes that determine traits. A genome is the full set of genetic material in an organism. - Genotypes are an individual's genetic makeup at a locus, while phenotypes are the observable traits that result from gene expression. - Dominant alleles will be expressed even if paired with a recessive allele, while recessive alleles require two copies to be expressed. - Inheritance patterns like autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, X-linked, and mitochondrial are described through examples like cystic fibrosis and hemophilia.

1. By Hanu Pratap

2. 2
Genetic Information
• Gene – basic unit of genetic
information. Genes determine the
inherited characters.
• Genome – the collection of
genetic information.
• Chromosomes – storage units of
genes.
• DNADNA - is a nucleic acid that
contains the genetic instructions
specifying the biological
development of all cellular forms

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Chromosome Logical Structure
• Locus – location of a gene/marker
on the chromosome.
• Allele – one variant form of a
gene/marker at a particular locus.
Locus1
Possible Alleles: A1,A2
Locus2
Possible Alleles: B1,B2,B3

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Human Genome
Most human cells
contain 46 chromosomes:
• 2 sex chromosomes (X,Y):
XY – in males.
XX – in females.
• 22 pairs of chromosomes
named autosomes.

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Genotypes Phenotypes
• At each locus (except for sex chromosomes)
there are 2 genes. These constitute the
individual’s genotype at the locus.
• The expression of a genotype is termed a
phenotype. For example, hair color, weight,
or the presence or absence of a disease.

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Genotypes Phenotypes (example)
• Eb
- dominant allele.
• Ew
- recessive allele.
genotypes
phenotypes

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Dominant vs. Recessive
• A dominant allele is
expressed even if it is
paired with a recessive
allele.
•A recessive allele is
only visible when paired
with another recessive
allele.

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One Locus Inheritance
heterozygote homozygote
21A | A a | a
A | a 3 4 a | a
A | a 5 6 a | a
Male
Female

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Two members of a gene pair segregate from each other into
the gametes, so half the gametes carry one member of the
pair and the other half carry the other member of the pair.
Two members of a gene pair segregate from each other into
the gametes, so half the gametes carry one member of the
pair and the other half carry the other member of the pair.
Mendel’s 1st
Law
Y / y y / y
½y/y
½Y/y
½y
½Y
all yGamete
production
Gamete
production

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Calculating Probabilities
• We want to predict
patterns of inheritance
of traits and diseases in
pedigrees.
• E.g., we want to know
the likelihood that a
dog chosen at random
from the study
population will have blue
eyes.

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X-linked Inheritance
Different results obtained
from reciprocal crosses
between red-eyed and
white-eyed Drosophila.
Explanation: The gene
responsible for eye-color
is X-linked. Females have
2X-chromosomes, while
males have 1 X-chromosome
and 1 Y-chromosome.

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Mendel’s 2nd
Law
• Different gene pairs assort independently
in gamete formation.
Gene pairs on SEPARATE CHROMOSOMES
assort independently at meiosis.
Gene pairs on SEPARATE CHROMOSOMES
assort independently at meiosis.
This “law” is true only in some cases.

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Medical Genetics
When studying rare disorders, 6 general
patterns of inheritance are observed:
• Autosomal recessive
• Autosomal dominant
• X-linked recessive
• X-linked dominant
• Codominant
• Mitochondrial

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Medical Genetics (cont.(
Autosomal recessive
• The disease appears
in male and female
children of
unaffected parents.
• e.g., cystic fibrosis

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Medical Genetics (cont.(
Autosomal dominant
• Affected males and
females appear in each
generation of the
pedigree.
• Affected mothers and
fathers transmit the
phenotype to both sons
and daughters.
• e.g., Huntington disease.

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Medical Genetics (cont.(
X-linked recessive
• Many more males than
females show the disorder.
• All the daughters of an
affected male are
“carriers”.
• None of the sons of an
affected male show the
disorder or are carriers.
• e.g., hemophilia

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Medical Genetics (cont.(
X-linked dominant
• Affected males pass the
disorder to all daughters
but to none of their sons.
• Affected heterozygous
females married to
unaffected males pass the
condition to half their sons
and daughters
• e.g. fragile X syndrome

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Medical Genetics (cont.(
Codominant inheritance
• Two different versions
(alleles) of a gene can be
expressed, and each
version makes a slightly
different protein
• Both alleles influence the
genetic trait or determine
the characteristics of the
genetic condition.
• E.g. ABO locus

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Medical Genetics (cont.(
Mitochondrial inheritance
• This type of inheritance
applies to genes in
mitochondrial DNA
• Mitochondrial disorders
can appear in every
generation of a family and
can affect both males and
females, but fathers do
not pass mitochondrial
traits to their children.
• E.g. Leber's hereditary
optic neuropathy (LHON)

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Question #1
1 2
• Write the genotypes in every possible place.
• If individuals 1 and 2 marry, what is the probability that
their first child will be sick?

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Question #2
• PKU is a human hereditary disease resulting from
inability of the body to process the chemical
phenylalanine (contained in protein that we eat).
• It is caused by a recessive allele with simple
Mendelian inheritance.
• Some couple wants to have children. The man has a
sister with PKU and the woman has a brother with
PKU. There are no other known cases in their
families.
• What is the probability that their first child
will have PKU ?

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Question #2-Solution Highlights
P/p P/p P/p P/p
p/p p/pP-/ P-/
P – the normal allele
p – the mutant allele

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Question #3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a. What is the most likely mode of inheritance ?
b. What would be the outcomes of the cousin marriages
1 x 9, 1 x 4, 2 x 3, and 2 x 8 ?
• The disease is rare.

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a. Observations:
– After the disease is introduced into the family in generation
#2, it appears in every generation  dominant!
– Fathers do not transmit the phenotype to their sons 
X-linked!
a. The outcomes:
– 1 x 9: 1 must be A/a
9 must be A/Y
– 1 x 4: 1 must be A/a
4 must be a/Y
– 2 x 3: 2 must be a/Y
3 must be A/a
– 2 x 8: 2 must be a/Y
8 must be a/a
Same
All normal
Question #3-Solution Highlights

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Notes
• Cystic fibrosis – disease affecting the mucus lining of
the lungs, leading to breathing problems and other
difficulties
• Huntington disease - or Huntington's chorea is an
inherited disorder characterized by abnormal body
movements called chorea, and loss of memory. There also
is evidence that doctors as far back as the Middle Ages
knew of this devastating disease. The incidence is 5 to 8
per 100,000. It takes its name from the New York
physician George Huntington who first described it
precisely in 1872.

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Notes
• Hemophilia-illness that impair the body's ability
to control bleeding.
• Fragile X syndrome - is a genetic condition
that causes a range of developmental problems
including learning disabilities and mental
retardation. Usually males are more severely
affected by this disorder than females. In addition
to learning difficulties, affected males tend to be
restless, fidgety, and inattentive. Affected males
also have characteristic physical features that
become more apparent with age.

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Notes -cont
• DNA - a pair of molecules joined by hydrogen bonds: it is
organized as two complementary strands, head-to-toe, with
the hydrogen bonds between them. Each strand of DNA is a
chain of chemical "building blocks", called nucleotides, of
which there are four types:adenide (abbreviated A),
cytozyne (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T).
• Mitochondria, which are structures in each cell that convert
molecules into energy, each contain a small amount of DNA.
• A chromatid forms one part of a chromosome after it has
coalesced for the process of mitosis or meiosis. During
either process, the word "chromosome" indicates a pair of
two exactly identical ("sister") chromatids joined at the
central point of each chromatid, called the centromere.

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Notes -cont
• Mitosis is the process by which a cell separates
its duplicated genome into two identical halves
• Meiosis is the process that transforms one diploid
into four haploid cells.
• Reciprocal cross a cross, with the phenotype of
each sex reversed as compared with the original
cross, to test the role of parental sex on inheritance
pattern. A pair of crosses of the type genotype
A(female) X genotype B(male) and genotype
B(female) X genotype A(male).

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Thanks for your
attention