The document summarizes different types of gene mutations and how they occur. It discusses micro and macromutations, types of point mutations including substitutions, insertions, and deletions. It also describes different mutagens like radiation, chemicals, and their mechanisms of inducing mutations. Detection methods like CIB and DNA repair mechanisms like mismatch repair are also summarized.
A genetic mutation is a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can arise from unrepaired DNA or RNA damage, replication errors, or mobile genetic elements. They play a role in both normal and abnormal biological processes like evolution, cancer development, and the immune system. There are two main types of mutations: somatic mutations, which occur in non-reproductive cells and are not inherited, and germline mutations, which occur in reproductive cells and can be passed to offspring. Mutations can be classified in several ways based on their structure, function, protein effects, and inheritance patterns. They can arise spontaneously from DNA damage or errors, or be induced by chemicals, radiation, and other mutagens
Mutations are changes to an organism's genetic material. There are several types of mutations, including changes to DNA sequences, chromosomes, and chromosome numbers. Point mutations alter single nucleotide base pairs and can be silent, missense, or nonsense. Chromosome mutations include deletions, inversions, duplications, and translocations. Changes in chromosome number include euploidy (having normal or multiple sets) and aneuploidy (having extra or missing chromosomes). Mutations can occur spontaneously or be induced by mutagens like radiation or chemicals. They provide genetic variation and are an important source of evolution.
Mutations are changes in genetic material that can be passed from parent cells to daughter cells. There are two main types of mutations:
1. Spontaneous mutations arise from errors in DNA replication and can include base pair substitutions like transitions/transversions and frameshift mutations from insertions/deletions of bases.
2. Induced mutations are caused by external mutagenic agents like chemicals or radiation that alter DNA structure.
Mutations can have varying effects depending on if they result in nonsense/missense amino acid changes or are silent/neutral. Frameshift mutations alter all codons after the mutation. Mutations are an important source of genetic variation and play a role in evolution.
Genetic mutations can occur through changes in DNA base sequences or large chromosomal alterations. There are two main types of mutations - chromosomal mutations, which involve changes in large chromosome structures like translocations or deletions, and gene mutations, such as point mutations that change single DNA bases. Point mutations can be further divided into nonsense, missense, silent, and frameshift subtypes depending on their effects on protein sequences. Frameshift mutations caused by insertion or deletion of bases can alter reading frames and change all subsequent amino acids. Suppressor mutations in tRNA molecules allow decoding of altered codons to suppress effects of mutations. Mutations provide a mechanism for genetic change and often result in beneficial new genes and functions that enable organism adaptation
This document discusses the molecular mechanisms of spontaneous and induced mutations. It begins with an introduction and overview of types of mutations. It then describes spontaneous mutations that can occur due to DNA replication errors, spontaneous DNA lesions like depurination and deamination, and transposition. It also explains induced mutations caused by physical mutagens like radiation and heat, and chemical mutagens such as base analogs, alkylating agents, and intercalating agents. The document concludes with definitions of mutation rate and frequency.
Cell Biology and genetics paper - Mutation a basic touch to b.sc students with examples. DNA, genome, gene level mutation and chromosome level with examples. Touched some of the mutation types.
This document discusses mutations, which are sudden heritable changes in genetic material. Mutations can be classified in several ways, including by direction (forward or reverse), cause (spontaneous or induced), and tissue of origin (somatic or germinal). Spontaneous mutations occur randomly due to environmental mutagens or natural chemical changes in DNA bases. Induced mutations are caused by chemical or physical mutagens. The Ames test is commonly used to detect mutations. While most mutations are harmful, some can be beneficial by introducing genetic variation.
A genetic mutation is a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can arise from unrepaired DNA or RNA damage, replication errors, or mobile genetic elements. They play a role in both normal and abnormal biological processes like evolution, cancer development, and the immune system. There are two main types of mutations: somatic mutations, which occur in non-reproductive cells and are not inherited, and germline mutations, which occur in reproductive cells and can be passed to offspring. Mutations can be classified in several ways based on their structure, function, protein effects, and inheritance patterns. They can arise spontaneously from DNA damage or errors, or be induced by chemicals, radiation, and other mutagens
Mutations are changes to an organism's genetic material. There are several types of mutations, including changes to DNA sequences, chromosomes, and chromosome numbers. Point mutations alter single nucleotide base pairs and can be silent, missense, or nonsense. Chromosome mutations include deletions, inversions, duplications, and translocations. Changes in chromosome number include euploidy (having normal or multiple sets) and aneuploidy (having extra or missing chromosomes). Mutations can occur spontaneously or be induced by mutagens like radiation or chemicals. They provide genetic variation and are an important source of evolution.
Mutations are changes in genetic material that can be passed from parent cells to daughter cells. There are two main types of mutations:
1. Spontaneous mutations arise from errors in DNA replication and can include base pair substitutions like transitions/transversions and frameshift mutations from insertions/deletions of bases.
2. Induced mutations are caused by external mutagenic agents like chemicals or radiation that alter DNA structure.
Mutations can have varying effects depending on if they result in nonsense/missense amino acid changes or are silent/neutral. Frameshift mutations alter all codons after the mutation. Mutations are an important source of genetic variation and play a role in evolution.
Genetic mutations can occur through changes in DNA base sequences or large chromosomal alterations. There are two main types of mutations - chromosomal mutations, which involve changes in large chromosome structures like translocations or deletions, and gene mutations, such as point mutations that change single DNA bases. Point mutations can be further divided into nonsense, missense, silent, and frameshift subtypes depending on their effects on protein sequences. Frameshift mutations caused by insertion or deletion of bases can alter reading frames and change all subsequent amino acids. Suppressor mutations in tRNA molecules allow decoding of altered codons to suppress effects of mutations. Mutations provide a mechanism for genetic change and often result in beneficial new genes and functions that enable organism adaptation
This document discusses the molecular mechanisms of spontaneous and induced mutations. It begins with an introduction and overview of types of mutations. It then describes spontaneous mutations that can occur due to DNA replication errors, spontaneous DNA lesions like depurination and deamination, and transposition. It also explains induced mutations caused by physical mutagens like radiation and heat, and chemical mutagens such as base analogs, alkylating agents, and intercalating agents. The document concludes with definitions of mutation rate and frequency.
Cell Biology and genetics paper - Mutation a basic touch to b.sc students with examples. DNA, genome, gene level mutation and chromosome level with examples. Touched some of the mutation types.
This document discusses mutations, which are sudden heritable changes in genetic material. Mutations can be classified in several ways, including by direction (forward or reverse), cause (spontaneous or induced), and tissue of origin (somatic or germinal). Spontaneous mutations occur randomly due to environmental mutagens or natural chemical changes in DNA bases. Induced mutations are caused by chemical or physical mutagens. The Ames test is commonly used to detect mutations. While most mutations are harmful, some can be beneficial by introducing genetic variation.
Mutations are sudden changes in the genetic material of an organism that can be caused by mutagens like chemicals, radiation, or errors in DNA replication. There are two main types of mutations: gene mutations, which alter the DNA sequence of a gene, and chromosomal mutations, which involve changes to chromosomes like deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations of DNA segments. Gene mutations can be point mutations, which substitute a single nucleotide, or frameshift mutations, which insert or delete nucleotides and alter the reading frame. Chromosomal mutations can cause diseases like Down syndrome, which results from trisomy of chromosome 21.
Mutations are genetic changes that result in alternative gene forms. There are two main types of mutations: gene mutations that change gene chemistry and chromosomal aberrations that affect chromosome structure and number. Most mutations are random, recessive, harmful, and non-adaptive, but can provide raw material for evolution by creating genetic variation. Mutations occur spontaneously due to errors in DNA replication or can be induced. They play a role in forming new alleles and allowing adaptability to environmental changes. There are different types of mutations, including somatic, germinal, hereditary, acquired, silent, neutral, missense, and nonsense mutations.
The document discusses factors that can alter allelic frequencies in a population. It describes six main factors: 1) Mutation introduces new alleles, 2) Genetic drift like bottle neck effects can change frequencies randomly, 3) Migration through gene flow affects frequencies, 4) Natural selection increases frequencies of beneficial alleles and decreases unfavorable ones, 5) Non-random mating influences which individuals reproduce more, and 6) Inbreeding increases homozygosity. These genetic and evolutionary factors all impact the proportion of alleles in a population over time.
Concept of gene & ultra structure of geneJigar Patel
This presentation includes introduction of gene, gene concept, chemical composition and ultra structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene for B.Sc students.
The document discusses various types of mutations and how they are induced. It describes three main types of mutations: chromosome mutations, genome mutations, and single-gene mutations. Single-gene mutations can be further divided into point mutations, deletions, additions, transitions, and transversions. Mutations can occur spontaneously due to errors in DNA replication or be induced by environmental mutagens like chemicals, radiation, and viruses. Mutations provide genetic variation but can also cause genetic disorders and diseases.
A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size.
Transposition often results in duplication of the TE.
Barbara McClintock's discovery of these jumping genes earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the C-value of eukaryotic cells.
This document discusses transposable elements (TEs), which are segments of DNA that can change positions within the genome. It classifies TEs into two classes based on their mechanism of transposition. Class 1 elements use a "cut and paste" mechanism involving transposase, while Class 2 retrotransposons use reverse transcriptase in a "copy and paste" mechanism. Examples of TEs discussed include Ac-Ds elements in maize, P elements in Drosophila, and LINEs and SINEs in humans. The effects of TE insertion include gene mutation, changes in gene regulation, gene duplication, deletion, and chromosome rearrangements. Applications of TEs include their use as cloning vectors and providing raw material for evolution
The document discusses different types of point mutations that can occur in DNA. It defines point mutations as changes to one or a few base pairs, while chromosomal/segmental mutations involve changes to an entire chromosome or section of it. The main types of point mutations are substitutions, insertions, and deletions. Substitutions are further broken down into transitions and transversions. Point mutations can occur in coding or non-coding regions, with mutations in non-coding regions having no effect. Mutations in coding regions can be synonymous or non-synonymous, with synonymous mutations not changing the amino acid. Non-synonymous mutations include missense mutations, which change an amino acid, and nonsense mutations, which introduce a
This document summarizes molecular basis of mutations. It defines mutations as changes in genetic information and describes different types of mutations including point mutations, chromosomal mutations, germline mutations and somatic mutations. It also discusses various mutagens responsible for mutations like chemical mutagens such as alkylating agents, base analogs and reactive oxygen species, and physical mutagens like UV radiation and ionizing radiation. The mechanisms of different mutagens and types of mutations based on their phenotypic effects are also summarized.
Spontaneous mutations arise from errors in DNA replication and spontaneous DNA damage. Errors in replication can result in base substitutions if an incorrect base pairs with another. Spontaneous DNA damage includes depurination, in which bases are lost from DNA, and deamination of cytosine to uracil. Large deletions and duplications can also occur spontaneously. These replication errors and lesions generate the genetic variation that allows organisms to evolve in response to environmental changes. Spontaneous mutations are the ultimate source of natural genetic variation seen within populations and are responsible for certain human genetic diseases when they disrupt important genes.
This document provides an overview of RNA editing. It begins by defining RNA editing as any process that results in a change to an RNA transcript sequence compared to the DNA template, excluding splicing. It then discusses the two main types of editing - base modification and insertion/deletion. Key points include that editing occurs in the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts; the mechanism of pan editing in kinetoplastids involving guide RNAs; and examples of A-to-I and C-to-U editing in humans. The document also summarizes a case study on the role of the SLO2 gene in plant stress responses through regulation of mitochondrial electron transport.
Mutations are changes in genetic material that alter the DNA sequence. There are two main types of mutations: chromosomal mutations, which involve changes to entire chromosomes, and gene mutations, which affect specific genes. Gene mutations can be further classified as point mutations, which involve a single nucleotide change, or frameshift mutations, caused by insertions or deletions of DNA bases. Mutations can be harmful, neutral, or beneficial, and are an important source of genetic variation driving evolution. Common genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy are caused by specific mutations.
Genetic recombination involves the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes or DNA molecules. It occurs through two main types - homologous recombination, which exchanges DNA between similar sequences, and non-homologous recombination between dissimilar sequences. Recombination is important for genetic diversity, DNA repair, and proper chromosome segregation during cell division. It can happen during both mitosis and meiosis, but only meiotic recombination shuffles genes from parents to offspring. There are also different mechanisms of recombination, including site-specific, transposition, and various DNA repair pathways that facilitate genetic exchange.
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of genes. They can be point mutations like substitutions, insertions, or deletions of single nucleotides, or large-scale mutations involving larger chromosomal changes. Mutations can arise spontaneously from errors in DNA replication or DNA damage, or be induced by mutagens like chemicals, radiation, or viruses. Point mutations can cause silent, missense, or nonsense changes to proteins, while frameshift mutations alter the reading frame. Mutations can have harmful, beneficial, or no effects depending on their location and type of genetic change.
Mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelles found in eukaryotic cells that are thought to have originated from endosymbiotic bacteria. They contain their own circular genome and are the site of aerobic respiration and ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited and mutations can cause a variety of mitochondrial diseases due to defects in energy production.
Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be induced by environmental factors like chemicals or radiation. Spontaneous mutations arise from errors in DNA replication or chemical changes to bases like deamination, while induced mutations are caused by mutagens that damage DNA like radiation, base analogs, or intercalating agents. Both spontaneous and induced mutations can lead to changes in the genetic code through base substitutions, insertions, or deletions.
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA that may occur in somatic or gamete cells. Most mutations are neutral or harmful, causing diseases like cancer, but some may provide benefits like improved survival. There are two classes of mutation: spontaneous mutations, which naturally occur during DNA replication, and induced mutations caused by mutagens like UV light and radiation. Different types of mutations include chromosome mutations like deletions or inversions, as well as morphological, lethal, conditional, and biochemical mutations.
There are several types of mapping used to determine the location and distance between genetic elements and markers on a genome. Genetic mapping uses recombination events to estimate distances between markers. Physical mapping relies on experimental outcomes like hybridization and amplification but may not provide distance measures. Radiation hybrid mapping allows high-resolution mapping by exploiting how rodent cells incorporate genetic material from fused cells. Comparative mapping utilizes animal models and ortholog identification to explore causes of disease across multiple species.
This document discusses different types of gene mutations. It begins by explaining that mutations can occur naturally or be induced artificially, and can happen at the chromosome, gene, or molecular level. The main types of gene mutations described are point mutations, which are further divided into missense, silent, and nonsense mutations depending on their effects. Other types discussed include substitutions, insertions, deletions, and frameshift mutations. Specific examples are provided to illustrate each type of mutation and how they can alter the nucleotide and resulting protein sequences.
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. They may occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be induced by mutagens like chemicals, radiation, or viruses. Mutations can be harmful, harmless, or beneficial depending on their location and effects. There are several types of mutations including substitutions, insertions, deletions, and frameshifts which can alter protein functions and cause diseases. Bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics via mutations selected through antibiotic use.
Mutations refer to heritable changes in DNA base sequences. There are different types of mutations including substitutions, additions, and deletions of DNA bases. Mutations can occur spontaneously in nature or can be induced by mutagens like radiation and chemicals. Key classifications of mutations include spontaneous vs induced, recessive vs dominant, somatic vs germline, forward vs back vs suppressor, and chromosomal vs genomic vs point mutations. Mutations can affect DNA at the chromosome, genome, or point levels and can have varying effects on organisms.
Mutations are sudden changes in the genetic material of an organism that can be caused by mutagens like chemicals, radiation, or errors in DNA replication. There are two main types of mutations: gene mutations, which alter the DNA sequence of a gene, and chromosomal mutations, which involve changes to chromosomes like deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations of DNA segments. Gene mutations can be point mutations, which substitute a single nucleotide, or frameshift mutations, which insert or delete nucleotides and alter the reading frame. Chromosomal mutations can cause diseases like Down syndrome, which results from trisomy of chromosome 21.
Mutations are genetic changes that result in alternative gene forms. There are two main types of mutations: gene mutations that change gene chemistry and chromosomal aberrations that affect chromosome structure and number. Most mutations are random, recessive, harmful, and non-adaptive, but can provide raw material for evolution by creating genetic variation. Mutations occur spontaneously due to errors in DNA replication or can be induced. They play a role in forming new alleles and allowing adaptability to environmental changes. There are different types of mutations, including somatic, germinal, hereditary, acquired, silent, neutral, missense, and nonsense mutations.
The document discusses factors that can alter allelic frequencies in a population. It describes six main factors: 1) Mutation introduces new alleles, 2) Genetic drift like bottle neck effects can change frequencies randomly, 3) Migration through gene flow affects frequencies, 4) Natural selection increases frequencies of beneficial alleles and decreases unfavorable ones, 5) Non-random mating influences which individuals reproduce more, and 6) Inbreeding increases homozygosity. These genetic and evolutionary factors all impact the proportion of alleles in a population over time.
Concept of gene & ultra structure of geneJigar Patel
This presentation includes introduction of gene, gene concept, chemical composition and ultra structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene for B.Sc students.
The document discusses various types of mutations and how they are induced. It describes three main types of mutations: chromosome mutations, genome mutations, and single-gene mutations. Single-gene mutations can be further divided into point mutations, deletions, additions, transitions, and transversions. Mutations can occur spontaneously due to errors in DNA replication or be induced by environmental mutagens like chemicals, radiation, and viruses. Mutations provide genetic variation but can also cause genetic disorders and diseases.
A transposable element (TE or transposon) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genome size.
Transposition often results in duplication of the TE.
Barbara McClintock's discovery of these jumping genes earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the C-value of eukaryotic cells.
This document discusses transposable elements (TEs), which are segments of DNA that can change positions within the genome. It classifies TEs into two classes based on their mechanism of transposition. Class 1 elements use a "cut and paste" mechanism involving transposase, while Class 2 retrotransposons use reverse transcriptase in a "copy and paste" mechanism. Examples of TEs discussed include Ac-Ds elements in maize, P elements in Drosophila, and LINEs and SINEs in humans. The effects of TE insertion include gene mutation, changes in gene regulation, gene duplication, deletion, and chromosome rearrangements. Applications of TEs include their use as cloning vectors and providing raw material for evolution
The document discusses different types of point mutations that can occur in DNA. It defines point mutations as changes to one or a few base pairs, while chromosomal/segmental mutations involve changes to an entire chromosome or section of it. The main types of point mutations are substitutions, insertions, and deletions. Substitutions are further broken down into transitions and transversions. Point mutations can occur in coding or non-coding regions, with mutations in non-coding regions having no effect. Mutations in coding regions can be synonymous or non-synonymous, with synonymous mutations not changing the amino acid. Non-synonymous mutations include missense mutations, which change an amino acid, and nonsense mutations, which introduce a
This document summarizes molecular basis of mutations. It defines mutations as changes in genetic information and describes different types of mutations including point mutations, chromosomal mutations, germline mutations and somatic mutations. It also discusses various mutagens responsible for mutations like chemical mutagens such as alkylating agents, base analogs and reactive oxygen species, and physical mutagens like UV radiation and ionizing radiation. The mechanisms of different mutagens and types of mutations based on their phenotypic effects are also summarized.
Spontaneous mutations arise from errors in DNA replication and spontaneous DNA damage. Errors in replication can result in base substitutions if an incorrect base pairs with another. Spontaneous DNA damage includes depurination, in which bases are lost from DNA, and deamination of cytosine to uracil. Large deletions and duplications can also occur spontaneously. These replication errors and lesions generate the genetic variation that allows organisms to evolve in response to environmental changes. Spontaneous mutations are the ultimate source of natural genetic variation seen within populations and are responsible for certain human genetic diseases when they disrupt important genes.
This document provides an overview of RNA editing. It begins by defining RNA editing as any process that results in a change to an RNA transcript sequence compared to the DNA template, excluding splicing. It then discusses the two main types of editing - base modification and insertion/deletion. Key points include that editing occurs in the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts; the mechanism of pan editing in kinetoplastids involving guide RNAs; and examples of A-to-I and C-to-U editing in humans. The document also summarizes a case study on the role of the SLO2 gene in plant stress responses through regulation of mitochondrial electron transport.
Mutations are changes in genetic material that alter the DNA sequence. There are two main types of mutations: chromosomal mutations, which involve changes to entire chromosomes, and gene mutations, which affect specific genes. Gene mutations can be further classified as point mutations, which involve a single nucleotide change, or frameshift mutations, caused by insertions or deletions of DNA bases. Mutations can be harmful, neutral, or beneficial, and are an important source of genetic variation driving evolution. Common genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy are caused by specific mutations.
Genetic recombination involves the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes or DNA molecules. It occurs through two main types - homologous recombination, which exchanges DNA between similar sequences, and non-homologous recombination between dissimilar sequences. Recombination is important for genetic diversity, DNA repair, and proper chromosome segregation during cell division. It can happen during both mitosis and meiosis, but only meiotic recombination shuffles genes from parents to offspring. There are also different mechanisms of recombination, including site-specific, transposition, and various DNA repair pathways that facilitate genetic exchange.
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of genes. They can be point mutations like substitutions, insertions, or deletions of single nucleotides, or large-scale mutations involving larger chromosomal changes. Mutations can arise spontaneously from errors in DNA replication or DNA damage, or be induced by mutagens like chemicals, radiation, or viruses. Point mutations can cause silent, missense, or nonsense changes to proteins, while frameshift mutations alter the reading frame. Mutations can have harmful, beneficial, or no effects depending on their location and type of genetic change.
Mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelles found in eukaryotic cells that are thought to have originated from endosymbiotic bacteria. They contain their own circular genome and are the site of aerobic respiration and ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited and mutations can cause a variety of mitochondrial diseases due to defects in energy production.
Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be induced by environmental factors like chemicals or radiation. Spontaneous mutations arise from errors in DNA replication or chemical changes to bases like deamination, while induced mutations are caused by mutagens that damage DNA like radiation, base analogs, or intercalating agents. Both spontaneous and induced mutations can lead to changes in the genetic code through base substitutions, insertions, or deletions.
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA that may occur in somatic or gamete cells. Most mutations are neutral or harmful, causing diseases like cancer, but some may provide benefits like improved survival. There are two classes of mutation: spontaneous mutations, which naturally occur during DNA replication, and induced mutations caused by mutagens like UV light and radiation. Different types of mutations include chromosome mutations like deletions or inversions, as well as morphological, lethal, conditional, and biochemical mutations.
There are several types of mapping used to determine the location and distance between genetic elements and markers on a genome. Genetic mapping uses recombination events to estimate distances between markers. Physical mapping relies on experimental outcomes like hybridization and amplification but may not provide distance measures. Radiation hybrid mapping allows high-resolution mapping by exploiting how rodent cells incorporate genetic material from fused cells. Comparative mapping utilizes animal models and ortholog identification to explore causes of disease across multiple species.
This document discusses different types of gene mutations. It begins by explaining that mutations can occur naturally or be induced artificially, and can happen at the chromosome, gene, or molecular level. The main types of gene mutations described are point mutations, which are further divided into missense, silent, and nonsense mutations depending on their effects. Other types discussed include substitutions, insertions, deletions, and frameshift mutations. Specific examples are provided to illustrate each type of mutation and how they can alter the nucleotide and resulting protein sequences.
Mutations are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. They may occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be induced by mutagens like chemicals, radiation, or viruses. Mutations can be harmful, harmless, or beneficial depending on their location and effects. There are several types of mutations including substitutions, insertions, deletions, and frameshifts which can alter protein functions and cause diseases. Bacteria can develop resistance to antibiotics via mutations selected through antibiotic use.
Mutations refer to heritable changes in DNA base sequences. There are different types of mutations including substitutions, additions, and deletions of DNA bases. Mutations can occur spontaneously in nature or can be induced by mutagens like radiation and chemicals. Key classifications of mutations include spontaneous vs induced, recessive vs dominant, somatic vs germline, forward vs back vs suppressor, and chromosomal vs genomic vs point mutations. Mutations can affect DNA at the chromosome, genome, or point levels and can have varying effects on organisms.
Mutation is a change in genetic material that can be caused by errors during DNA replication or DNA repair. There are several types of mutations including point mutations, insertions, deletions, and chromosomal mutations. Point mutations include transitions, transversions, missense mutations, and nonsense mutations. Insertions and deletions can disrupt the genetic code. Spontaneous mutations arise naturally while induced mutations are caused by mutagens like radiation, chemicals, or viruses. Mutations can be germline or somatic and can have different effects on protein function and the phenotype. The document provides examples of specific mutations and their effects.
Mutations are permanent changes to the nucleotide sequence of genetic material. There are two main types of mutations: chromosomal mutations which involve changes in chromosome structure like deletions, inversions, or duplications, and gene mutations which alter single nucleotides and can be substitutions, insertions, or deletions. Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be caused by mutagens like radiation or chemicals. While many mutations are harmful, some can provide benefits for organisms and increase their chances of survival.
This document discusses mutagens and types of mutations. It defines mutagens as physical, chemical, or biological agents that cause mutations by altering genes or gene expression. It describes several types of mutagens including radiation, chemicals, viruses and bacteria. It also categorizes different types of mutations including point mutations, frameshift mutations, transitions, transversions, missense mutations and more. Several examples of diseases caused by specific mutations are provided such as sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, and others.
1. Mutations can occur through errors in DNA replication, repair, or recombination which can cause substitutions, insertions or deletions of DNA bases. Environmental mutagens like radiation and chemicals can also directly interact with DNA and cause mutations.
2. Some mutations involve changes to a single DNA base pair, while others are larger scale mutations affecting longer DNA segments. Point mutations may substitute one base for another, while insertions or deletions can disrupt the DNA reading frame.
3. Cells have mechanisms like direct repair and photoreactivation to correct some mutations, but errors in these pathways can also lead to mutations if not repaired properly.
Mutations are permanent changes to an organism's DNA sequence that can arise due to mistakes during DNA replication or damage from environmental factors. There are two main types of mutations - chromosomal mutations, which involve changes in chromosome structure like deletions, duplications, inversions or translocations, and gene mutations, such as point mutations or frameshift mutations. Point mutations include substitutions, insertions or deletions of single nucleotide bases, while frameshift mutations are caused by insertions or deletions of multiple nucleotides. Chromosomal mutations can lead to conditions like Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, or duplication syndromes.
Mutations,natural selection and speciationbhavnesthakur
Mutations, natural selection, and speciation were the topics covered. The key points discussed include:
1. Mutations are sudden, inheritable changes in genetic material that can be caused by factors like radiation, chemicals, or replication errors. They can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.
2. Natural selection occurs when heritable traits influence the reproductive success of organisms, meaning mutations that increase fitness are more likely to be passed on.
3. Over time, accumulation of genetic differences through natural selection and mutations can lead to the emergence of new species in a process known as speciation.
Mutations can occur through various mechanisms and can have different effects on genes and organisms. There are several types of mutations including point mutations, which alter single nucleotide pairs, and frameshift mutations, which change the reading frame. Mutations can be caused by errors in DNA replication or damage from physical or chemical mutagens. Cells have multiple DNA repair systems to correct mutations, including direct repair, excision repair, and mismatch repair. Recombination and transposition are processes that involve rearrangement of DNA sequences and can result in transfer of DNA segments within and between genomes.
Mutations can occur at the gene or chromosome level. Gene mutations include point mutations such as substitutions (nonsense, missense, silent), insertions, and deletions. Point mutations change a single nucleotide, while insertions and deletions cause frameshift mutations by altering the entire reading frame. Chromosome mutations include aneuploidy, where an extra or missing chromosome causes monosomy or trisomy, and chromosomal rearrangements like duplications, deletions, inversions, and translocations. Mutations can have advantages by allowing adaptation, but can also cause genetic disorders and diseases.
Mutation breeding is a technique that uses mutagens like radiation and chemicals to induce mutations in plant genomes to create genetic variability for plant breeding purposes. The key steps in mutation breeding are selecting plant material, treating it with mutagens, growing the treated material to identify desirable mutants. Notable mutant varieties released in India include MA-9 cotton and several disease resistant chickpea and mung bean varieties. While mutation breeding can create useful variation, it also has limitations like low mutation rates and risk of undesirable side effects. Overall, mutation breeding remains an important tool for plant breeding.
1. Mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene or chromosome. There are several types of mutations including point mutations, frameshift mutations, deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations.
2. Point mutations involve a change to a single nucleotide base, such as a substitution, insertion or deletion. Frameshift mutations occur when multiple nucleotides are inserted or deleted, changing the reading frame.
3. Mutations can be caused by errors during DNA replication or by environmental mutagens like radiation or chemicals. They can occur in somatic cells or germ cells and be transmitted to offspring. Most mutations are harmful but some can provide benefits for adaptation or evolution.
Mutations are changes in DNA sequences that can occur in genes, chromosomes, or the genome. There are several types of mutations including substitutions, insertions, deletions, and frameshifts. Mutations can be caused by errors during DNA replication or by exposure to mutagens like radiation. While some mutations are harmful and cause genetic disorders, others can be beneficial and lead to evolution. Researchers have studied mutations that occurred early in human development by analyzing DNA sequences from adult tissues to gain insights into embryology.
1. Strain improvement techniques aim to develop microbial variants that have higher productivity and lower costs of metabolite production. This is achieved through methods like mutation, recombination, protoplast fusion, and gene technology.
2. Microorganisms have regulatory mechanisms that limit metabolite synthesis to their requirements. Developing high yield strains requires suppressing these mechanisms, such as feedback inhibition and feedback repression.
3. Common methods for strain improvement include physical and chemical mutagenesis to induce mutations, and genetic recombination through processes like transformation, transduction, and conjugation in bacteria.
This document summarizes molecular mechanisms of mutation and DNA damage repair in cells. It discusses how mutagens can induce point mutations by substituting or damaging DNA bases, causing errors during DNA replication. It also describes genetic diseases like fragile X syndrome that result from expansions of trinucleotide repeats. The document outlines several DNA repair pathways in cells and how defects in these pathways can lead to increased mutation rates and cancer-prone genetic disorders.
This document summarizes molecular mechanisms of mutation and DNA damage repair in cells. It discusses how mutagens can induce point mutations by substituting or damaging DNA bases, causing errors during DNA replication. It also describes genetic diseases linked to expansions of trinucleotide repeats, such as Fragile X syndrome and Huntington's disease. The document outlines several DNA repair pathways in cells and how defects in these pathways can lead to increased mutation rates and cancer-proneness.
This document summarizes molecular mechanisms of mutation and DNA damage repair in cells. It discusses how mutagens can induce point mutations by substituting or damaging DNA bases, causing errors during DNA replication. It also describes genetic diseases linked to expansions of trinucleotide repeats, such as Fragile X syndrome and Huntington's disease. The document outlines several DNA repair pathways in cells and how defects in these pathways can lead to increased mutation rates and cancer-proneness.
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Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
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Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Communicating effectively and consistently with students can help them feel at ease during their learning experience and provide the instructor with a communication trail to track the course's progress. This workshop will take you through constructing an engaging course container to facilitate effective communication.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
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environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
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Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
5. Mutations occurs at a frequency of about 1 in
every 1 billion base pairs.
Everybody has about 6 mutation in each cell
in
their body .
How common are mutations
?
6. we have that many mutations ,
why don`t we look weird?
7. Mutations are not always seen . The affected gene may still function .
Mutations may be harmful
Mutations may be beneficial .
Mutations may have no effect on the organism.
8. Mutations are a major source of genetic
variation in a population increasing
biodiversity.
Some variations may help them to survive
better.
How do mutations affect a population ?
9. Only mutations in gametes (egg and sperm )
are passed onto offspring .
Mutations in body cells only affect the organism
in which they occur and are not passed onto
offspring.
How are mutations
inherited ?
10.
11. MICROMUTATIONS
Change can be positive , negative , or neutral .
Can be passed to offspring if in gametes .
One or several bases
Small changes to DNA
Mutation with invisible phenotypic changes.
12. MACROMUTATION
Oligogenic in nature.
Can be easily selected in M2 generation.
It can be easily recognizable in plants.
Produce a large phenotypic effect .
Mutation with invisible phenotypic changes.
14. Euploldy is the presence of chromosome
number which is the multiple of the basic
chromosome set.
EUPLOIDY
15. Types of Euploidy:
Monoploidy :- Monoploid individuals have single
basic set of chromosome, e.g., in barley 2n = x = 7
(haploid of a diploid species).
Haploid :- Haploids are individuals with
chromosome number half of the somatic number, e.g.,
in wheat (2n = 3x = 21).
16. Aneuploidy
Aneuploidy can be either due to loss of one or more chromosomes
(hypo-ploidy) or due to addition of one or more chromosomes to
complete chromosome complement (hyper-ploidy).
Aneuploidy is the presence of chromosome number that is different
fromthe simple multiple of the basic chromosome number.
17. Monosomy
Monosomy is the phenomenon where an individual lacks one or a few
non-homologous chromosome(s) of a diploid complement.
Possible monosomies in an organism
Double monosomies
(2n – 1 – 1)
Triple monosomies
(2n – 1 – 1 – 1)
18. Nullisomy (2n – 2).
Due to loss of one
pair of
chromosomes
DIPLOID
2N=6
NULLISOMY
2N - 2= 4
22. SUBSTITUTION MUTATION
When one nucleotide base is replaced by another.
EXAMPLE
THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
THE FAT HAT ATE THE RAT
23. Cont..
Normal DNA : CGA – TGC – ATC
Alanine – Threonine – Stop
Mutated DNA : CGA - TGC - TTC
Alanine - Threonine - Lysine
It may or may not affect
the amino acid or
protein. New gene still
makes sense.
26. TRANSITION
METHOD
A PYRIMIDINE FOR A PYRIMIDINE (C for T OR T for C)
A PURINE FOR A PURINE (A for G OR G for A )
TRANSVERSION
METHOD
A PYRIMIDINE BY A PURINE ( T by A OR G by C )
A PURINE FOR A PRIMIDINE ( A by T OR G by C )
29. Chromosomal
Aberrations
A chromosome abnormality, disorder, abnormality,
aberration, or mutation is a missing, extra, or irregular
portion of chromosomal DNA. It can be from an atypical
number of chromosomes or a structural abnormality in
one or more chromosomes.
32. Part of a chromosome in
duplicate, a particular kind of
mutation (change) involving
the production of one or
more copies of any piece of
DNA, including a gene or even
an entire chromosome.
DUPLICATION
33. DELETION :- A base is removed from the DNA
sequence.
34. INVERSION
An inversion is a chromosome
rearrangement in which a segment
of a chromosome is reversed end
to end.
PERICENTRIC
INVERSION
PERICENTRIC
INVERSION
39. Silent mutation
The mutation changes one codon for
an amino acid into another codon for that
same amino acid.
It has no effect on gene’s function. Mutation goes unnoticed.
40. Why Is this possible ?
Because the
genetic code is so
repetitive .
41. it is also a change in one DNA base pair. Instead of substituting
one amino acid for another, however, the altered DNA sequence
prematurely signals the cell to stop building a protein. This type
of mutation results in a shortened protein that may function
improperly or not at all.
Non - Sense Mutation
43. Missense
Mutation
This type of mutation is a change in one DNA base pair that
results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in
the protein made by a gene.
45. Somatic mutations occur in any of the cells of the body
except the germ cells ( sperm and egg ) and therefore
are not passed on to children .
SOMATIC MUTATION
56. Radiation is the process by which energy is emitted as either particles or waves. Broadly,
it can take the form of sound, heat, or light. However, most people generally use it to
refer to radiation from electromagnetic waves, ranging from radio waves, though the
visible light spectrum, and up through to gamma waves.
WHAT IS
RADIATION?
57. They are electromagnetic waves
incapable of producing ions while
passing through matter due to
their lower energy.
UV RAYS is an example of
non-ionizing radiation
58.
59. These radiations are X- rays. gamma rays
etc. DNA has so-called hotspots. where
mutations occur up to 100 times more
than the normal mutation rate. A hotspot
can be
at an unusual base, e.g.. 5-methylcytosine.
Ionizing radiations attacks on these hot
spot and break the DNA.
62. BASE
ANALOGUES
Molecules which have a very similar structure to one of the
four nitrogenous bases which are used in DNA (adenine,
guanine, cytosine or thymine).
A very common and widely used base analogue is
5-bromouracil (5-BU) which is an analogue of
thymine. The 5-BU functions like thymine and
pairs with adenine
63. Chemicals Changing the Specificity of Hydrogen
Bonding:
There are many chemicals that after
incorporation into DNA change the
specificity of hydrogen -bonding.
Those which are used as mutagens
are nitrous oxide (HNO2),
hydroxylamine (HA) and ethyl-
methane-sulphonate (EMS).
65. Deamination of Adenine:
Results in formation of hypoxanthine, the pairing
behaviour of which is like guanine.
Hence, it pairs with cytosine instead of thymine replacing AT
pairing by GC pairing
66. Deamination of Cytosine:
Results in formation of uracil by replacing –
NH2 group with -OH group.
The affinity for hydrogen bonding of uracil is like
thymine; therefore, C-G pairing is replaced by U-A
pairing
67. Deamination of Guanine :-
Results in formation of xanthine, the later is not
mutagenic.
Xanthine behaves like guanine because there is no change in
pairing behaviour.
Xanthine pairs with cytosine. Therefore, G-C pairing is replaced by
X-C pairing.
68. Hydroxylamin
e (NH2OH):
It hydroxylates the C4 nitrogen of
cytosine.
Converts into a modified base via deamination which causes to base
pairs like thyamine.
GC pairs are changed into AT pairs.
69. Alkylating
Agents:
Addition of an alkyl group to the hydrogen bonding oxygen of
guanine (N7 position) and adenine (at N3 position) residues of DNA is
done by alkylating agents.
Following are some of the important widely used
alkylating agents:
(a) Dimethyl sulphate (DMS)
(b) Ethyl methane sulphonate (EMS) -CH3CH2SO3CH3
(c) Ethyl ethane sulphonate (EES) -CH3CH2SO3CH2CH3
76. Chemicals structurally resemble normal
bases, purines and pyrimidines
Incorporate into DNA during replication
Lead to incorrect insertion of nucleotides
opposite them in replication
Chemical Mutagens -Base analogs
78. resembles Thymine (T)
has Br atom at C-5 instead of methyl
group as in T
can incorporate into DNA and pair with
either A or G due to tautomerization
5-Bromouracil
analog of a pyrimidine
79. * TAUTOMERIZATION – spontaneous structural alternations
between 2 forms, keto form and enol form
5-Bromouracil
analog of a pyrimidine
82. Chemicals which alter structure and
pairing properties of normal bases
Active on both replicating and non-
replicating DNA
Result in mutation upon DNA replication
by forming baseless sites or mispair
Two common chemical modification
agents
Alkylating agents
Deaminating agents
Chemical Mutagens-
Chemical modification agents
83. Alkylating agents
Modify the normal bases by adding alkyl
groups
Common alkylating agents
Ethylmethane sulfonate (EMS)
Nitrosoguanidine (NG)
Di-(2-chloroethyl) sulfide (Sulfur mustard)
Di-(2-chloroethyl) methylamine (Nitrogen
mustard)
87. Oxidative deamination of amino
group in Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
and Cytosine (C)
Deaminating agents
88. Nitrous acid (HNO2) is one of
common deaminating agents
Convert the amino group (-NH2) into keto
group (=O)
Change H-bonding potential of the
modified bases
Deaminating agents
89. Adenine (A) → Hydroxanthine
Mechanism of Nitrous acid
92. A group of aromatic organic
molecules
Roughly the same dimensions as a
nitrogenous base pair
Intercalate or wedge between the
base pair
Chemical Mutagens-
Intercalating agents
93. Cause addition or deletion of base
pairs of intact DNA
Alter reading frame of gene
Result in non-functional gene
product
Chemical Mutagens-
Intercalating agents
105. REMOVAL, SYNTHESIS AND SEALING
Exonuclease, Endonuclease, Polymerase, DNA ligase
DNA METHYLATION
Adenine Methylase
STRAND DISCRIMINATION
Recognition of newly synthesized strand as it has incorrect base pair
MECHANISM
106.
107. •Crucial step
•Recognition of correct and incorrect
nucleotide
•Correct is on template strand and incorrect is
on newly synthesized strand
•Crucial because in it’s absence only 50% of
success rate is there.
STRAND DISCRIMINATION
108. •Enzyme- Adenine methylase
•It recognizes the substrate and
marks the newly synthesized strand
with incorrect base
•It marks by adding methyl group to each
of the Adenine residues during DNA
replication
DNA Methylation
109. REMOVAL, SYNTHESIS AND SEALING
REMOVAL
Endonuclease makes a nick on either side on
wrong base.
Exonuclease finally cleaves of the wrong base.
SYNTHESIS
DNA Polymerase fills in the gap using
the correct DNA strand as template.
SEALING DNA Ligase seals the gap.
121. UvrA,
UvrB
Endonuclease: Recognizes
the damaged stretch
Exonuclease: Removes
the damaged strand
Endonucleases: Make 2 cuts on
either side of DNA strand
Synthesizes new
strand
Seals the end of newly
synthesized strand
UvrC
UvrD
DNA
Polymerase
DNA
Ligase
122.
123. • Last resort, hence it’s name.
• TRANSLESON SYNTHESIS or EMERGENCY REPAIR
SYSTEM
• bacteria can induce the expression of about 20 genes
(including lexA, recA, and uvr) whose products allow DNA
replication to occur even in the presence of these lesions.
• Y family of DNA polymerases, synthesize DNA directly
across the damaged portion.
• Error prone synthesis, random nucleotide insertion.
• SOS repair itself might become mutagenic but prevents
organism from lethal mutation.
124.
125. QUESTION TIME
Q1 What is missense mutation and nonsense mutation ?
Q2 What is euploidy ?
Q3 What is aneuploidy ?
Q4 Difference between pericentic and paracentric inversions?
Q5 What do you mean by mutagens ? Name the different types of mutagens.
Q6 What is alkylating agents ?
Q7 What is intercalating agents ?
Q8 What do you mean by base analogs ?