This document discusses IPv4 and IPv6 addressing and routing. It covers topics such as:
- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit and unique, while IPv6 addresses are 128-bit
- Classful and classless addressing in IPv4, including network masks
- Network address translation (NAT) allows private addresses to connect to the public internet
- Routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, and BGP are used for intradomain and interdomain routing based on metrics and shortest paths
- IPv6 was developed to address the long-term address depletion problem in IPv4
Subnetting allows dividing a single network into multiple subnets. Each subnet is treated as a separate network and can be a LAN or WAN. Subnetting transforms host bits in the IP address into network bits, creating additional network identifiers from a single address block. The default subnet masks divide networks into classes A, B, and C. An example shows subnetting a Class C network with address 192.168.1.0/24 to create two /25 networks with 126 hosts each by using 1 host bit as a network bit. Transforming 2 host bits creates four /26 networks each with 62 hosts.
The document summarizes key concepts related to network layer addressing, error reporting, and multicasting from Chapter 21. It includes:
1) Address mapping allows mapping between logical and physical addresses either statically or dynamically using protocols like ARP.
2) ICMP handles error reporting and network queries that IP lacks. It includes error messages and query messages.
3) IGMP manages group membership and multicast addressing and routing. It allows hosts to join multicast groups.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers that uniquely identify devices on the internet. They are divided into four octets and can identify both a device and its network. There are different classes of IP addresses based on the value of the first octet, with Class A having up to 127 networks and over 16 million hosts each, Class B having 16,000 networks with 65,000 hosts each, and Class C having over 2 million networks with 254 hosts each. IP addresses use a hierarchical structure to organize networks and subnetworks.
This document provides an overview of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and version 6 (IPv6). It discusses the need for a network layer in an internetwork, the key components and functioning of IPv4 including packet structure, fragmentation, and checksum calculation. It then covers the advantages of IPv6 over IPv4 and the differences in packet format and extension headers between the two protocols. Finally, it discusses the challenges of transitioning from IPv4 to IPv6 and different transition strategies like running both protocols simultaneously, tunneling, and header translation.
This document discusses subnetting and provides examples. It describes subnetting as breaking up a large network into smaller subnets. Subnetting allows creating multiple networks from a single address block and maximizes addressing efficiency. The document then provides examples of subnetting a network using CIDR notation and calculating the number of subnets, hosts per subnet, valid IP ranges, and broadcast addresses. It also discusses an example of optimally subnetting the IP addresses needed across different departments within a university based on their host requirements.
Complete understanding of subnet masking
also available on the youtube channal in three parts 1,2,3
link:-
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC36lyOTi8w1EhQ-yZssjX1g?view_as=subscriber.
The document provides an overview of network layer concepts including delivery, forwarding, routing, and routing protocols. It discusses direct vs indirect delivery, forwarding techniques and routing tables, unicast routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP, and multicast routing protocols. Key topics covered include delivery, forwarding, routing tables, distance vector routing, link state routing, path vector routing, multicast applications, multicast routing approaches, and protocols like PIM-DM and PIM-SM. Figures and examples illustrate related concepts.
A switched network consists of interconnected nodes called switches that can temporarily connect devices linked to the switch. There are three main types of switching: circuit switching, datagram/packet switching, and virtual circuit switching. Circuit switching requires resource reservation and dedicates resources for the duration of a connection. Datagram switching does not reserve resources and allocates them on demand. Virtual circuit switching has aspects of both by dedicating resources only for packets belonging to the same connection. Switches can be constructed in single-stage or multistage designs, with multistage switches using fewer crosspoints.
Subnetting allows dividing a single network into multiple subnets. Each subnet is treated as a separate network and can be a LAN or WAN. Subnetting transforms host bits in the IP address into network bits, creating additional network identifiers from a single address block. The default subnet masks divide networks into classes A, B, and C. An example shows subnetting a Class C network with address 192.168.1.0/24 to create two /25 networks with 126 hosts each by using 1 host bit as a network bit. Transforming 2 host bits creates four /26 networks each with 62 hosts.
The document summarizes key concepts related to network layer addressing, error reporting, and multicasting from Chapter 21. It includes:
1) Address mapping allows mapping between logical and physical addresses either statically or dynamically using protocols like ARP.
2) ICMP handles error reporting and network queries that IP lacks. It includes error messages and query messages.
3) IGMP manages group membership and multicast addressing and routing. It allows hosts to join multicast groups.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers that uniquely identify devices on the internet. They are divided into four octets and can identify both a device and its network. There are different classes of IP addresses based on the value of the first octet, with Class A having up to 127 networks and over 16 million hosts each, Class B having 16,000 networks with 65,000 hosts each, and Class C having over 2 million networks with 254 hosts each. IP addresses use a hierarchical structure to organize networks and subnetworks.
This document provides an overview of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and version 6 (IPv6). It discusses the need for a network layer in an internetwork, the key components and functioning of IPv4 including packet structure, fragmentation, and checksum calculation. It then covers the advantages of IPv6 over IPv4 and the differences in packet format and extension headers between the two protocols. Finally, it discusses the challenges of transitioning from IPv4 to IPv6 and different transition strategies like running both protocols simultaneously, tunneling, and header translation.
This document discusses subnetting and provides examples. It describes subnetting as breaking up a large network into smaller subnets. Subnetting allows creating multiple networks from a single address block and maximizes addressing efficiency. The document then provides examples of subnetting a network using CIDR notation and calculating the number of subnets, hosts per subnet, valid IP ranges, and broadcast addresses. It also discusses an example of optimally subnetting the IP addresses needed across different departments within a university based on their host requirements.
Complete understanding of subnet masking
also available on the youtube channal in three parts 1,2,3
link:-
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC36lyOTi8w1EhQ-yZssjX1g?view_as=subscriber.
The document provides an overview of network layer concepts including delivery, forwarding, routing, and routing protocols. It discusses direct vs indirect delivery, forwarding techniques and routing tables, unicast routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP, and multicast routing protocols. Key topics covered include delivery, forwarding, routing tables, distance vector routing, link state routing, path vector routing, multicast applications, multicast routing approaches, and protocols like PIM-DM and PIM-SM. Figures and examples illustrate related concepts.
A switched network consists of interconnected nodes called switches that can temporarily connect devices linked to the switch. There are three main types of switching: circuit switching, datagram/packet switching, and virtual circuit switching. Circuit switching requires resource reservation and dedicates resources for the duration of a connection. Datagram switching does not reserve resources and allocates them on demand. Virtual circuit switching has aspects of both by dedicating resources only for packets belonging to the same connection. Switches can be constructed in single-stage or multistage designs, with multistage switches using fewer crosspoints.
The document provides an overview of network layer concepts including delivery, forwarding, routing, and routing protocols. It discusses direct vs indirect delivery, forwarding techniques and routing tables, unicast routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP, and multicast routing protocols. Key topics covered include delivery, forwarding, routing tables, distance vector routing, link state routing, path vector routing, multicast applications, multicast routing approaches, and protocols like PIM-DM and PIM-SM. Figures and examples illustrate related concepts.
- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers that uniquely identify devices connected to the internet. IPv6 addresses are 128-bit numbers introduced to replace IPv4 due to the depletion of its 32-bit address space.
- IPv4 addresses are divided into classes A, B, C based on the first bits, with each class allocating a different number of addresses. IPv6 addresses use a 128-bit address space and are written in hexadecimal colon notation.
- Network Address Translation (NAT) was introduced to allow sharing of IPv4 addresses since the 32-bit address space was depleting, allowing private networks to use non-routable addresses that are translated to public routable addresses.
Chapter 26 - Remote Logging, Electronic Mail & File TransferWayne Jones Jnr
TELNET is a general-purpose client/server application that allows users to access applications on remote computers. Electronic mail is one of the most popular Internet services, using user agents, message transfer agents, and message access agents. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows transferring files between computers using separate TCP connections for control commands and data transfer.
The document discusses various technologies used for data transmission over telephone and cable networks, including:
1. Telephone networks originally used analog circuit switching to transmit voice calls but have transitioned to separate digital data transfer and signaling networks.
2. Traditional telephone lines support dial-up modems using modulation/demodulation to transmit data within the 3000Hz bandwidth for voice calls.
3. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technologies like ADSL provide higher bandwidth internet over existing telephone lines by using frequencies up to 1.1MHz.
4. Cable networks originally provided unidirectional video but now support bidirectional high-speed internet using technologies like DOCSIS to share bandwidth over coaxial and fiber-opt
This document provides an introduction to subnetting basics. It begins by covering prerequisite knowledge, including classful network addressing, subnet masks in dotted decimal and prefix length notation, and the default subnet masks for Classes A, B, and C. It then explains how to identify the subnet and host bits when given an IP address and prefix length. The document demonstrates how to calculate the number of subnets and hosts available by using binary math equations. It provides an example of analyzing an IP address of 192.168.32.158/28 to determine its subnet ID and host ID.
Internet Protocol (IP) is used to carry data from source to destination hosts across the Internet by providing addressing, fragmentation and reassembly, packet timeouts, and prioritization of traffic. IP uses 32-bit addresses to identify sending and receiving hosts and allows packets to be split into smaller fragments if needed to travel across networks. Routers use the IP Time to Live field to discard packets that have been traveling too long to prevent flooding of networks.
Addressing deals with uniquely identifying the location of an entity for communication purposes. It involves a name/identifier, address, and route. Addresses allow messages to be delivered to the intended destination. IP addresses in IPv4 are 32-bit numbers that identify devices on the network. IPv6 was developed to replace IPv4 and uses 128-bit addresses to overcome the address space limitations of IPv4. A transition approach is needed to integrate IPv6 since the internet cannot be abruptly changed over.
This document provides information about IPv4 and IPv6 by comparing their key aspects. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, allowing for more available addresses. IPv4 addresses are represented in dotted decimal notation while IPv6 uses colon-separated hexadecimal. IPv6 was developed to address limitations in IPv4 such as address space exhaustion and lack of security features. The document outlines differences between the two protocols in areas like packet fragmentation, checksums, and address types.
This document discusses classless addressing and variable-length subnetting. It begins by explaining that in classless addressing, variable-length blocks of IP addresses are assigned without class boundaries. It then provides examples of how to determine the network address, broadcast address, and number of addresses given a classless IP address and prefix length. The document also describes how organizations can create subnets within a granted address block to meet their needs using variable-length subnetting.
- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers that uniquely identify devices connected to the internet. IPv6 addresses are 128-bit numbers introduced to replace IPv4 due to its limited 32-bit address space running out.
- IPv4 addresses are divided into classes A, B, C based on the first bits, with each class allocating a different number of addresses. IPv6 addresses use a 128-bit address space and are written in hexadecimal colon notation.
- Network Address Translation (NAT) was introduced to allow sharing of IPv4 addresses since the available addresses were insufficient. NAT maps private IPv4 addresses to public addresses for connecting to the internet.
This presentation contains why we need sub netting, how we do sub netting, CIDR, Subnet mask, Subnet mask value, Class A Sub netting, Class B Sub netting, Class C Sub netting.
The document discusses subnetting and provides an example of how to subnet the IP network address 192.168.1.128 into 6 subnets. It explains that subnetting allows a single network number to be shared among multiple physical networks. Each host is configured with an IP address and subnet mask, where the subnet is calculated by performing a bitwise AND of the IP address and subnet mask. The example shows how to determine the subnet mask is 255.255.255.224 when creating 6 subnets, and that each subnet can support up to 30 hosts.
Subnets divide a network into smaller sub-networks or subnets. Each subnet is treated as a separate network and can be further divided. When a packet enters a network with subnets, routers will route based on the subnet ID which is a combination of the network ID and subnet portion of the IP address. Subnets are only relevant for routing within an organization and are transparent outside the organization.
An IP address is divided into a network and host part, with a class A address using the first 8 bits for the network and the last 24 bits for the host. A subnet mask, also consisting of 32 bits, uses 1s to represent the network part and 0s to represent the host part, allowing a computer to determine the network and host parts of an IP address. For example, an IP address of 10.0.0.1 with a default class A subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 would mean any IP address starting with 10 would be in the same network, ranging from 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255.
MAC addresses are 48- or 64-bit identifiers linked to the hardware of network adapters. They are expressed as hexadecimal strings like 01-23-45-67-89-AB. There are two types: universally administered addresses, which are assigned at manufacture with the first three octets identifying the manufacturer, and locally administered addresses, which can be manually changed but must be unique on the local subnet. MAC addresses can be useful for security and troubleshooting network issues.
This document discusses ARP and RARP protocols. ARP is used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses on local networks. It works by broadcasting ARP requests and unicasting replies. RARP is used in the opposite direction, to map a device's MAC address to its IP address. Examples are given of how an ARP cache works, including entries for pending, resolved, and free states. RARP has been replaced by BOOTP and DHCP for providing additional configuration info like subnet masks.
The document discusses the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and its role in compensating for deficiencies in the Internet Protocol (IP). ICMP provides error reporting and query messages to detect and diagnose network problems. Some key points covered include:
- ICMP reports errors encountered in IP packet delivery such as packets being discarded due to congestion or expired time-to-live values.
- ICMP query messages like ping are used to check reachability and calculate round-trip times between hosts or routers.
- The main ICMP message types are for error reporting, queries, and network management functions like redirection and router discovery.
This document discusses IP addressing and classful addressing in TCP/IP networking. It covers the following key points:
- IP addresses are 32-bit addresses that uniquely identify devices on the Internet. They are organized into classes A, B, C, D and E based on the binary pattern of the address.
- Classful addressing allocates address blocks to organizations based on these classes. However, this led to inefficient address usage and rapid depletion of available addresses.
- Subnetting and supernetting were introduced to allow better allocation of addresses within the original classful blocks through the use of subnet and supernet masks. However, classful addressing is now mostly obsolete.
This document provides an overview of IP addressing concepts including:
- The structure of IP addresses including classes, subnet masking, and CIDR
- Techniques for subnetting networks and creating more subnets and hosts including VLSM
- The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 to address the limited address space of IPv4
The document discusses IPv4 addressing and subnetting. It provides an example where an ISP is granted a block of 65,536 IPv4 addresses. The ISP needs to allocate these addresses to three groups of customers with different address requirements. It designs the subnet blocks for each group using variable length subnet masking to efficiently allocate the addresses. In total, 40,960 addresses are allocated, leaving 24,576 addresses still available.
This document provides an overview of network layer logical addressing, focusing on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses. It discusses key topics such as the structure of IPv4 addresses, notation conventions, classful and classless addressing, subnetting, private addressing blocks, and Network Address Translation (NAT). IPv6 is introduced as a solution to the long-term problem of IPv4 address depletion due to its larger 128-bit address space. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like determining address classes, finding network and host portions of addresses, and allocating subnets.
The document provides an overview of network layer concepts including delivery, forwarding, routing, and routing protocols. It discusses direct vs indirect delivery, forwarding techniques and routing tables, unicast routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, BGP, and multicast routing protocols. Key topics covered include delivery, forwarding, routing tables, distance vector routing, link state routing, path vector routing, multicast applications, multicast routing approaches, and protocols like PIM-DM and PIM-SM. Figures and examples illustrate related concepts.
- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers that uniquely identify devices connected to the internet. IPv6 addresses are 128-bit numbers introduced to replace IPv4 due to the depletion of its 32-bit address space.
- IPv4 addresses are divided into classes A, B, C based on the first bits, with each class allocating a different number of addresses. IPv6 addresses use a 128-bit address space and are written in hexadecimal colon notation.
- Network Address Translation (NAT) was introduced to allow sharing of IPv4 addresses since the 32-bit address space was depleting, allowing private networks to use non-routable addresses that are translated to public routable addresses.
Chapter 26 - Remote Logging, Electronic Mail & File TransferWayne Jones Jnr
TELNET is a general-purpose client/server application that allows users to access applications on remote computers. Electronic mail is one of the most popular Internet services, using user agents, message transfer agents, and message access agents. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) allows transferring files between computers using separate TCP connections for control commands and data transfer.
The document discusses various technologies used for data transmission over telephone and cable networks, including:
1. Telephone networks originally used analog circuit switching to transmit voice calls but have transitioned to separate digital data transfer and signaling networks.
2. Traditional telephone lines support dial-up modems using modulation/demodulation to transmit data within the 3000Hz bandwidth for voice calls.
3. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technologies like ADSL provide higher bandwidth internet over existing telephone lines by using frequencies up to 1.1MHz.
4. Cable networks originally provided unidirectional video but now support bidirectional high-speed internet using technologies like DOCSIS to share bandwidth over coaxial and fiber-opt
This document provides an introduction to subnetting basics. It begins by covering prerequisite knowledge, including classful network addressing, subnet masks in dotted decimal and prefix length notation, and the default subnet masks for Classes A, B, and C. It then explains how to identify the subnet and host bits when given an IP address and prefix length. The document demonstrates how to calculate the number of subnets and hosts available by using binary math equations. It provides an example of analyzing an IP address of 192.168.32.158/28 to determine its subnet ID and host ID.
Internet Protocol (IP) is used to carry data from source to destination hosts across the Internet by providing addressing, fragmentation and reassembly, packet timeouts, and prioritization of traffic. IP uses 32-bit addresses to identify sending and receiving hosts and allows packets to be split into smaller fragments if needed to travel across networks. Routers use the IP Time to Live field to discard packets that have been traveling too long to prevent flooding of networks.
Addressing deals with uniquely identifying the location of an entity for communication purposes. It involves a name/identifier, address, and route. Addresses allow messages to be delivered to the intended destination. IP addresses in IPv4 are 32-bit numbers that identify devices on the network. IPv6 was developed to replace IPv4 and uses 128-bit addresses to overcome the address space limitations of IPv4. A transition approach is needed to integrate IPv6 since the internet cannot be abruptly changed over.
This document provides information about IPv4 and IPv6 by comparing their key aspects. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses while IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, allowing for more available addresses. IPv4 addresses are represented in dotted decimal notation while IPv6 uses colon-separated hexadecimal. IPv6 was developed to address limitations in IPv4 such as address space exhaustion and lack of security features. The document outlines differences between the two protocols in areas like packet fragmentation, checksums, and address types.
This document discusses classless addressing and variable-length subnetting. It begins by explaining that in classless addressing, variable-length blocks of IP addresses are assigned without class boundaries. It then provides examples of how to determine the network address, broadcast address, and number of addresses given a classless IP address and prefix length. The document also describes how organizations can create subnets within a granted address block to meet their needs using variable-length subnetting.
- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers that uniquely identify devices connected to the internet. IPv6 addresses are 128-bit numbers introduced to replace IPv4 due to its limited 32-bit address space running out.
- IPv4 addresses are divided into classes A, B, C based on the first bits, with each class allocating a different number of addresses. IPv6 addresses use a 128-bit address space and are written in hexadecimal colon notation.
- Network Address Translation (NAT) was introduced to allow sharing of IPv4 addresses since the available addresses were insufficient. NAT maps private IPv4 addresses to public addresses for connecting to the internet.
This presentation contains why we need sub netting, how we do sub netting, CIDR, Subnet mask, Subnet mask value, Class A Sub netting, Class B Sub netting, Class C Sub netting.
The document discusses subnetting and provides an example of how to subnet the IP network address 192.168.1.128 into 6 subnets. It explains that subnetting allows a single network number to be shared among multiple physical networks. Each host is configured with an IP address and subnet mask, where the subnet is calculated by performing a bitwise AND of the IP address and subnet mask. The example shows how to determine the subnet mask is 255.255.255.224 when creating 6 subnets, and that each subnet can support up to 30 hosts.
Subnets divide a network into smaller sub-networks or subnets. Each subnet is treated as a separate network and can be further divided. When a packet enters a network with subnets, routers will route based on the subnet ID which is a combination of the network ID and subnet portion of the IP address. Subnets are only relevant for routing within an organization and are transparent outside the organization.
An IP address is divided into a network and host part, with a class A address using the first 8 bits for the network and the last 24 bits for the host. A subnet mask, also consisting of 32 bits, uses 1s to represent the network part and 0s to represent the host part, allowing a computer to determine the network and host parts of an IP address. For example, an IP address of 10.0.0.1 with a default class A subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 would mean any IP address starting with 10 would be in the same network, ranging from 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255.
MAC addresses are 48- or 64-bit identifiers linked to the hardware of network adapters. They are expressed as hexadecimal strings like 01-23-45-67-89-AB. There are two types: universally administered addresses, which are assigned at manufacture with the first three octets identifying the manufacturer, and locally administered addresses, which can be manually changed but must be unique on the local subnet. MAC addresses can be useful for security and troubleshooting network issues.
This document discusses ARP and RARP protocols. ARP is used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses on local networks. It works by broadcasting ARP requests and unicasting replies. RARP is used in the opposite direction, to map a device's MAC address to its IP address. Examples are given of how an ARP cache works, including entries for pending, resolved, and free states. RARP has been replaced by BOOTP and DHCP for providing additional configuration info like subnet masks.
The document discusses the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and its role in compensating for deficiencies in the Internet Protocol (IP). ICMP provides error reporting and query messages to detect and diagnose network problems. Some key points covered include:
- ICMP reports errors encountered in IP packet delivery such as packets being discarded due to congestion or expired time-to-live values.
- ICMP query messages like ping are used to check reachability and calculate round-trip times between hosts or routers.
- The main ICMP message types are for error reporting, queries, and network management functions like redirection and router discovery.
This document discusses IP addressing and classful addressing in TCP/IP networking. It covers the following key points:
- IP addresses are 32-bit addresses that uniquely identify devices on the Internet. They are organized into classes A, B, C, D and E based on the binary pattern of the address.
- Classful addressing allocates address blocks to organizations based on these classes. However, this led to inefficient address usage and rapid depletion of available addresses.
- Subnetting and supernetting were introduced to allow better allocation of addresses within the original classful blocks through the use of subnet and supernet masks. However, classful addressing is now mostly obsolete.
This document provides an overview of IP addressing concepts including:
- The structure of IP addresses including classes, subnet masking, and CIDR
- Techniques for subnetting networks and creating more subnets and hosts including VLSM
- The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 to address the limited address space of IPv4
The document discusses IPv4 addressing and subnetting. It provides an example where an ISP is granted a block of 65,536 IPv4 addresses. The ISP needs to allocate these addresses to three groups of customers with different address requirements. It designs the subnet blocks for each group using variable length subnet masking to efficiently allocate the addresses. In total, 40,960 addresses are allocated, leaving 24,576 addresses still available.
This document provides an overview of network layer logical addressing, focusing on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses. It discusses key topics such as the structure of IPv4 addresses, notation conventions, classful and classless addressing, subnetting, private addressing blocks, and Network Address Translation (NAT). IPv6 is introduced as a solution to the long-term problem of IPv4 address depletion due to its larger 128-bit address space. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like determining address classes, finding network and host portions of addresses, and allocating subnets.
Module 5
Routing and Internetworking Address assignment for campus and enterprise
networks, Transmission/Stream data delivery to single and multiple
recipients. Logical addressing, Internet Protocol, Address mapping and Error reporting, Delivery and forwarding, Unicast and multicast routing protocol.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit addresses that uniquely identify devices connected to the Internet. They can be represented in binary or dotted-decimal notation. IPv4 addresses are divided into classes (A, B, C, D, E) based on the first bits, with each class allocating a different number of addresses. Subnetting and supernetting allow more flexible allocation of address blocks. Network Address Translation (NAT) allows sharing of public IP addresses by mapping private addresses to public addresses.
The document discusses IPv4 addressing and logical addressing in computer networks. It covers the following key points:
- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit addresses that uniquely identify devices connected to the internet. The total address space is 232 or approximately 4.3 billion addresses.
- Addresses can be written in binary or dotted-decimal notation. IPv4 addresses are divided into classes based on the first bits of the address.
- Classful addressing wasted a large portion of addresses. It was replaced by classless addressing which allocates address blocks of variable sizes.
- In classless addressing, a block of addresses is defined as the network address, subnet mask, and number of hosts. The first and last
The document discusses IPv4 and IPv6 addressing. It covers key topics such as:
- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit and represented in dotted-decimal or binary notation. IPv6 addresses are 128-bit and represented in hexadecimal notation.
- Subnetting allows an IPv4 network to be divided into smaller sub-networks to reduce broadcast domains and improve performance.
- Network Address Translation (NAT) allows private IP addresses to be translated to public IP addresses, conserving public address space.
- IPv6 was developed to replace IPv4 due to the limited address space of 232 addresses in IPv4. IPv6 addresses issues each host a unique 128-bit address.
This document provides an overview of IPv4 and IPv6 addressing. It discusses IPv4 address formats and notation, address classes, classful and classless addressing, subnetting, and private addressing. It also covers Network Address Translation (NAT). For IPv6, the document describes the 128-bit address format, address types including unicast and multicast, and reserved addresses. Examples are provided for converting between address notations, identifying address classes, subnetting address blocks, and expanding abbreviated IPv6 addresses.
The document discusses IPv4 and IPv6 addressing. It covers the following topics for IPv4 addresses: they are 32-bit addresses that uniquely identify devices; notation formats (binary, dotted-decimal); address space of 232; classes A-E; classful vs classless addressing; subnet masking; and network address translation (NAT). It also discusses IPv6 addresses: they are 128-bit to address depletion issues; notation formats (hexadecimal, abbreviated); and address types/prefixes (unicast, multicast, etc.).
The document discusses IPv4 and IPv6 addressing. It covers the following topics for IPv4 addresses: they are 32-bit addresses that uniquely identify devices; notation formats (binary, dotted-decimal); address space of 232; classes A-E; classful vs classless addressing; network address translation (NAT). It also discusses IPv6 addresses: they are 128-bit to address depletion issues; notation formats (hexadecimal, abbreviated); address types (unicast, multicast, etc.).
This document provides an overview of IPv4 and IPv6 addressing. It discusses the structure of IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, including the length of each address and common notations. It describes IPv4 classful and classless addressing, including CIDR notation. It also covers network address translation (NAT) and private IPv4 addresses. For IPv6, the document outlines the larger address space and expanded addressing capabilities compared to IPv4. Key topics include IPv6 address formats, types of IPv6 addresses, and reserved address blocks.
Subnet Masking in Computer Network--CST 2nd year by Tanushree BhadraSovonesh Pal
Network Layer:
Logical Addressing
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely identifies a device connected to the Internet. An IPv4 address space contains over 4 billion addresses. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long and expand the available address space vastly. Classful addressing divided the IP address space into classes A, B, C, D and E based on network size. However, classful addressing wasted large parts of the address space. Classless or subnetting addressing was introduced to allocate address blocks more efficiently.
This document discusses internetworking and connecting networks together. It covers topics related to network layer design issues like store-and-forward packet switching, services provided to the transport layer, and implementation of connectionless and connection-oriented services. Specific protocols discussed include IPv4, IPv6, addressing schemes, network address translation, and the transition from IPv4 to IPv6.
IP addresses are divided into classes (A, B, C, D, E) based on the first bits of the address. Classful addressing wastes address space. Subnetting and supernetting borrow bits from the host/network parts to create more efficient variable length subnets and supernets. Classless addressing uses CIDR notation of address/prefix length to define variable length blocks.
This document discusses addressing in networks using TCP/IP. It defines physical addresses (MAC addresses), logical addresses (IP addresses), and port addresses. It explains IP version 4 addressing using dotted decimal notation and how addresses are divided into network and host portions based on class (A, B, C). Subnetting and supernetting allow networks to be divided into subnets or combined into larger supernets. The document provides examples of addressing calculation, network/broadcast addresses, subnet and supernet masks.
The document discusses IPv4 addressing and networking concepts. It defines an IPv4 address as a 32-bit address that uniquely identifies devices on the Internet. IPv4 addresses have either a binary or dotted decimal notation. The document also covers IPv4 classes, subnetting, supernetting, and classless addressing which allow for flexible allocation of address blocks.
The network layer is responsible for host-to-host delivery across an internetwork. It performs internetworking, addressing, and routing functions. Communication at the network layer is connectionless, using datagram packets. IP addresses are 32-bit addresses that uniquely identify hosts and are used for routing. Classful addressing divides addresses into classes A, B, C, D and E based on the high order bits of the address. Subnetting and classless addressing allow more flexible allocation of addresses. Dynamic address configuration with DHCP and network address translation help conserve addresses. Routing can be static or dynamic using distance vector or link state algorithms to determine the best path between sources and destinations.
The document discusses network layer concepts including addressing, routing, and protocols. It covers IP addressing schemes like classful addressing and subnetting. It also describes routing techniques like next-hop, network-specific, host-specific, and default routing. Examples are provided to illustrate how routers use routing tables to forward packets based on the destination IP address.
This document discusses computer networks and IPv4 addressing. It covers:
- IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers that uniquely identify devices on the internet. They can be written in binary, decimal, or hexadecimal notation.
- Examples are provided to convert between these notations and find network addresses, prefixes, suffixes, and number of addresses in blocks.
- The concept of classful addressing is introduced, which divides IPv4 space into classes A, B, C, D, and E based on address bits. Subnetting and classless addressing are also covered.
- Classless addressing uses variable length blocks and prefix notation to provide more flexibility than classful addressing. Block allocation and extraction of block
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2. 19.2
19-1 IPv4 ADDRESSES
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and
universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.
Address Space
Notations
Classful Addressing
Classless Addressing
Network Address Translation (NAT)
7. Example 19.1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111
Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number and add dots for
separation:
a. 129.11.11.239
b. 249.155.251.15
8. Example 19.2
Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78
b. 75.45.34.78
Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent :
a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
b. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110
9. Types of Addressing
There are two type of addressing. They are
Classful addressing
Classless addressing
19.9
12. Class A address: designed for large organizations with a large number of attached
hosts or routers. (Wasted and not used)
Class B address: designed for midsize organizations with tens of thousands of
attached hosts or routers (too large for many organizations)
Class C address: designed for small organizations with a small number of attached
hosts or routers. (too small for many organizations)
Class D address: designed for multicasting. (Waste of addresses)
Class E address: reserved for future use (waste of addresses)
The following IP address ranges belong to Google:
64.233.160.0 - 64.233.191.255
66.102.0.0 - 66.102.15.255
66.249.64.0 - 66.249.95.255
72.14.192.0 - 72.14.255.255
74.125.0.0 - 74.125.255.255
209.85.128.0 - 209.85.255.255
216.239.32.0 - 216.239.63.255
Netid and Hostid
The address is divided into netid and hostid.
These parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class.
19.12
15. 19.15
Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111
Example 19.4
Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
17. Mask
It can help us to find the netid and hostid.
It is 32-bit number made of contiguous 1s followed by contiguous 0s.
CIDR (Classless Interdomain Routing) or slash notation:
It is used to show the mask in the form /n (n=8, 16, 24)
In classful addressing, a large part of the available addresses were wasted.
19.17
Table 19.2 Default masks for classful addressing
18. Sub netting
If an organization was granted a large block in class A or B, it could divide
the addresses into several contiguous groups and assign each group to
smaller networks (subnets) .
It increases the number of 1s in the mask.
Super netting
Although class A and B addresses are almost depleted, class C addresses
are still available (size of block= 256 so address did not satisfy the needs).
In super netting, an organization can combine several class C blocks to
create a larger range of addresses.
Several networks are combined to create a super network (super net).
E.g. Organization needs 1000 address can be granted 4 contiguous class C
blocks. Create one super network. It decreases the number of 1s in the
mask.
Address Depletion
Class C block is too small for most mid size organizations. So the solution is
Classless addressing.
Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete, is replaced with classless
addressing.
19.18
20. Classless addressing
To overcome address depletion and give more organizations
access to the internet, classless addressing was designed.
There are no classes, but the addresses are still granted in
blocks.
The size of the block (the number of addresses) varies based
on the nature and size of the entity.
• Household: 2 addresses
• Large organization: thousands of addresses.
• ISP: thousands or hundreds of thousands based on the number of
customers it may serve.
19.20
22. 19.22
In IPv4 addressing, a block of
addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t /n
in which x.y.z.t defines one of the
addresses and the /n defines the mask.
Note
23. 19.23
The first address in the block can be
found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 0s.
Note
24. 19.24
A block of addresses is granted to a small organization.
We know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28.
What is the first address in the block?
Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.
Example 19.6
25. 19.25
The last address in the block can be
found by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.
Note
26. 19.26
Find the last address for the block in Example 19.6.
Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
This is actually the block shown in Figure 19.3.
Example 19.7
27. 19.27
The number of addresses in the block
can be found by using the formula
232−n.
Note
28. 19.28
Find the number of addresses in Example 19.6.
Example 19.8
Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.
29. 19.29
Another way to find the first address, the last address, and
the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-
bit binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is
particularly useful when we are writing a program to find
these pieces of information. In Example 19.5 the /28 can
be represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).
Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.
Example 19.9
30. 19.30
Solution
a. The first address can be found by ANDing the given
addresses with the mask. ANDing here is done bit by
bit. The result of ANDing 2 bits is 1 if both bits are 1s;
the result is 0 otherwise.
Example 19.9 (continued)
31. 19.31
b. The last address can be found by ORing the given
addresses with the complement of the mask. ORing
here is done bit by bit. The result of ORing 2 bits is 0 if
both bits are 0s; the result is 1 otherwise. The
complement of a number is found by changing each 1
to 0 and each 0 to 1.
Example 19.9 (continued)
32. 19.32
c. The number of addresses can be found by
complementing the mask, interpreting it as a decimal
number, and adding 1 to it.
Example 19.9 (continued)
33. 19.33
NETWORK ADDRESS:
The first address in a block is normally not
assigned to any device; it is used as the network
address that represents the organization to the
rest of the world.
Note
34. Example:
Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the network address.
Solution:
The class is A. Only the first byte defines the netid. We can find the
network address by replacing the hostid bytes (56.7.91) with 0s.
Therefore, the network address is 23.0.0.0.
Example:
Given the address
132.6.17.85 and 23.56.7.91, find the network address?
Solution
1. The class is B. The first 2 bytes defines the netid. We can find the
network address by replacing the hostid bytes (17.85) with 0s.
132.6.0.0.
2. The class is A. Only the first byte defines the netid. We can find
the network address by replacing the hostid bytes (56.7.91) with 0s.
Therefore, the network address is 23.0.0.0.
19.34
35. Hierarchy:
Two-level Hierarchy: No sub netting
An IP address can define only two levels of hierarchy when not sub netted.
Prefix: the leftmost n bits define the network
Suffix: the rightmost 32 n bits define the host (computer or router).
Prefix is common to all network address.
Three-level hierarchy in an IPv4 address (Sub netted)
An organization that is granted a large block of addresses may want to create
clusters of networks (called subnets) and divide the addresses between the
different subnets.
Addresses in a network with and without sub netting
The network address can be found by applying the default mask to any address in
the block (including itself).It retains the netid of the block and sets the hostid to
0s.
19.35
36. 19.36
Figure 19.5 Two levels of hierarchy in an IPv4 address
IP address, like other address, has levels of hierarchy.
For example: telephone network in North America
39. 19.39
Figure 19.10 A NAT implementation
Network Address Translation (NAT)
NAT enables a user to have a large set of addresses internally and one address, or a small set of
addresses, externally.
The traffic inside can use the large set; the traffic outside, the small set.
40. 19.40
Figure 19.11 Addresses in a NAT
Address translation
All the outgoing packets go through the NAT router, which replaces the source address in the
packet with the global NAT address.
All incoming packets also pass through the NAT router, which replaces the destination address
in the packet (the NAT router global address) with the appropriate private address.
42. 19.42
19-2 IPv6 ADDRESSES
Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is
still a long-term problem for the Internet. This and
other problems in the IP protocol itself have been the
motivation for IPv6.
Structure
Address Space
Topics discussed in this section:
46. 19.46
Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original.
Example 19.11
Solution
We first need to align the left side of the double colon to
the left of the original pattern and the right side of the
double colon to the right of the original pattern to find
how many 0s we need to replace the double colon.
This means that the original address is.
53. Routing Table
Static routing table: created manually
Dynamic routing table: updated periodically by using one of the dynamic
routing protocols such as RIP, OSPF, or BGP.
Routing Protocols
A router consults a routing table when a packet is ready to be forwarded
The routing table specifies the optimum path for the packet: static or
dynamic
Internet needs dynamic routing tables to be updated as soon as there is a
change
There are two routing: Unicast routing and multicasting routing
RIP (Routing Information Protocol), OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), BGP
(Border Gateway Protocol)
54. Optimization
Which of the available pathways is the optimum pathway ?
One approach is to assign a cost for passing through a network, called
metric
Total metric is equal to the sum of the metrics of networks that comprise
the route
Router chooses the route with shortest (smallest) metric
RIP (Routing Information Protocol):
The cost of passing each network is one hop count.
If a packet passes through 10 networks to reach the destination, the total cost is
10 hop counts.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):
Administrator can assign cost for passing a network based on type of service
required.
OSPF allows each router to have more than one routing table based on required
type of service. Such as Maximum throughput or minimum delay.
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol):
Criterion is the policy, which is set by the administrator(speaker node).
55. Intra- and Interdomain Routing
AS (autonomous system): A group of networks and routers under the
authority of a single administration
Intradomain routing: inside an AS
Interdomain routing: between ASs
R1, R2, R3, and R4 use a intradomain and an interdomain routing protocol.
The other routes use only intradomain routing protocols
57. Routing Algorithm classification
1. Distance vector algorithms: router knows physically-connected
neighbors, link costs to neighbors, iterative process of computation,
exchange of partial information with neighbors.
2. Link state algorithms: all routers have complete topology, link cost
information.
Metric of different routing protocols
Metric is the cost assigned for passing through a network.
The total metric of a particular route is equal to the sum of the metrics of
networks that comprise the route.
A router chooses the route with smallest metric.
RIP (Routing Information Protocol):
The cost of passing each network is one hop count.
If a packet passes through 10 networks to reach the destination, the total
cost is 10 hop counts.
19.57
58. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):
Administrator can assign cost for passing a network
based on type of service required.
OSPF allows each router to have more than one
routing table based on required type of service. Such
as Maximum throughput or minimum delay.
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol):
Criterion is the policy, which is set by the
administrator(speaker node).
19.58
59. DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING
Each node maintains a set of triples
(Destination, Cost, NextHop)
Node knows the cost to each neighbor.
Directly connected neighbors exchange updates
Periodically (normally every 30 secs)
whenever table changes (called triggered update)
Each update is a list of pairs:
(Destination, Cost)
19.59
60. Routing Table
Neighbors exchange table entries
Determine current best next hop
For each destination list:
Next Node
Distance
“In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table with its immediate
neighbors periodically and when there is a change.”
The least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with minimum
distance.
Each node maintains a vector(table) of minimum distances to every node
19.60
62. To Cost nex
t
A 0 -
B 5 -
C 2 -
D 3 -
E 6 C
19.62
A
C
D
B
E
5
2
3
4
4
3
A’s Table
T
o
Cost ne
xt
A 3 -
B 8 A
C 5 A
D 0 -
E 9 A
T
o
Cos
t
ne
xt
A 2 -
B 4 -
C 0 -
D 5 A
E 4 -
D’s Table
C’s Table
T
o
Cos
t
ne
xt
A 6 C
B 3 -
C 4 -
D 9 C
E 0 -
E’s Table
B’s Table
T
o
Cos
t
ne
xt
A 5 -
B 0 -
C 4 -
D 8 A
E 3 -
Distance vector routing tables
The least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with minimum distance.
Each node maintains a vector(table) of minimum distances to every node
63. Initialization of tables in DV Routing
19.63
A B
C
D
E
5
2
3
3
4
4
At the beginning, each node can know only the distance between itself and its
immediate neighbors
64. 22-64
Distance Vector Routing:
Sharing
In distance vector routing, each node shares its routing table with its
immediate neighbors periodically and when there is a change
65. Updating in Distance Vector Routing
19.65
When a node receives a two-column table from a neighbor, it need to update its routing table
Updating rule:
Choose the smaller cost. If the same, keep the old one
If the next-node entry is the same, the receiving node chooses the new row
66. 22-66
When to Share
Periodic update: A node sends its routing table, normally every 30 s
Triggered update: Anode sends its two-column routing table to its
neighbors anytime there is a change in its routing table
67. Link State Routing
Each node has the entire topology of the domain- the list of nodes and links,
how they are connected including type, cost, and condition of the links(up
or down)
Node can use Dijkstra’s algorithm to build a routing table
68. Link State Knowledge
Each node has partial knowledge: it know the state (type, condition, and
cost) of its links. The whole topology can be compiled from the partial
knowledge of each node
69. Building Routing Table
1. Creation of the states of the links by each node, called the link state packet
(LSP)
2. Dissemination of LSPs to every other router, called flooding, in an efficient
and reliable way
3. Formation of a shortest path tree for each node
4. Calculation of a routing table based on the shortest path tree
1.Creation of LSP
LSP contains node identity, the list of links (to make the topology),
sequence number (to facilitate flooding and distinguish new LSPs from old
ones)
LSPs are generated (1) when there is a change in the topology of the domain, (2)
on a periodic basis, normally 60 min or 2 h
70. Building Routing Table
2.Flooding of LSPs
The creating node sends a copy of the LSP out of each interface
A node compares it with the copy it may already have. If the newly arrived LSP
is older than the one it has, it discards the LSP. If it is newer,
1. It discards the old LSP and keeps the new one
2. It sends a copy of it out of each interface except the one from which the packet
arrived
3.Formation of shortest path tree: Dijkstra Algorithm
After receiving all LSPs, each node will have a copy of the whole topology. Need
to find the shortest path to every other node
The Dijkstra algorithm creates a shortest path tree from a graph
73. Strategy
send to all nodes (not just neighbors)
information about directly connected links (not entire routing table)
Building Routing Tables:
Link State Packet (LSP)
id of the node that created the LSP
cost of link to each directly connected neighbor
sequence number
Time-to-live (TTL) for this packet.
Reliable flooding
Store most recent LSP from each node
Forward LSP to all nodes but the one that sent it.
generate new LSP periodically
Increment sequence number
Start sequence number at 0 when reboot.
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74. Route Calculation
Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm (Dijkstra algorithm)
Calculates the shortest path between two points on a network,
using a graph made up of nodes and edges.
Algorithm divides the nodes into two sets: tentative and permanent.
It chooses current node, makes them tentative, examines them, and
if they pass the criteria, makes them permanent.
Dijkstra Algorithm
1. Start with the local node (router) as the root of the tree.
2. Assign a cost of 0 to this node and make it the first permanent node.
3. Examine each neighbor of the node that was the last permanent
node.
4. Assign a cumulative cost to each node and make it tentative.
5. Among the list of tentative nodes
Find the node with the smallest cost and make it permanent.
If a node can be reached from more than one route, then select the
route with the shortest cumulative cost.
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 until every node becomes permanent.
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