Observations, surveys, interviews, and focus groups are tools that can be used to gather data for learning. Observations involve watching and recording events, and can provide both qualitative and quantitative behavioral data. Surveys are used to gather information from a wide range of respondents through questionnaires and can also collect both open-ended and closed-ended responses. Interviews are conducted with a sample of individuals to collect their perspectives through structured, semi-structured, or open-ended questions. Focus groups allow for interaction between participants and provide insights into common views or experiences through a discussion facilitated by a moderator. All of these tools require careful planning, facilitation, analysis, and protection of confidentiality.

1. Tools for Learning
Data Gathering
Paula Nottingham Updated 22/2/13
Jim Dine, 1962, MoMa

2. Inquiry Tools
Observations
Surveys
Interviews
Focus Groups
Jim Dine, 1973,MoMa

3. Observations
Observations can be a rich source of information of a
behavioural nature - observation grids can be devised in
order to examine the number of times that behaviour
occurs or to record specific responses or interventions.
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4. Observations
The observation method involves the researcher in
watching, recording and analysing events of interest.
the events may be recorded, either at the time or later by
the researcher the observations may be structured in
terms of a predetermined framework or may be relatively
open.
The observer may also be a participant in the events being
studied… this participant observation can be recorded in
your journal.

5. Observations
Data is often both qualitative (how and why) and
quantitative (how much and when). You can prepare a
‘coding framework’ or grid that ensures data is collected
within agreed boundaries of subjectivity-objectivity.
You can practice developing your analytical skills by
observing meetings (or similar events) in the
workplace (Bell, 2005), or audiovisual documentaries
of events.
Interactions with interviewees are noted in the analysis –
describe how you carried out the observation. This would
include gaining insight into any inherent conflicts from the
duality of the insider-researcher perspective.

6. Analysing Observations
The data is gathered and displayed as descriptions, quotes,
diagrams to show relationships, quantitative charts/displays
to show quantitative data, audio, audio-visual, and
photographic evidence, etc.
Your observations record what has happened sensitively
and appropriately to issues of ethics, permission and
confidentiality.
You need to report an understanding of the context for the
event or meeting that was observed in order to draw
conclusions from the data.

7. Surveys
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The main advantage of the survey approach is the ability to gather
data from wide range of representative respondents. The national
census and large-scale MORI polls are good examples of the survey
approach at its most effective.

8. Surveys
Surveys are usually associated with the idea of asking groups of
people questions about who they are or what they ‘think’. The
subjects being investigated by the researcher can in fact be about a
range of issues, events and activities.
Surveys can be both quantitative (counting up the responses and
giving percentages of the responses) and qualitative (leaving space
for participants to make comments).
A survey entirely based on one questionnaire might be limited in
terms of the depth of inquiry that can be undertaken, but it could
make up for this in terms of the breadth or range of results achieved.
To achieve generalisable results, the researcher can survey a
representative sample of the population of interest. Selection of
sufficient numbers of people to target in the population of interest can
be developed using a sampling frame that helps ensure that there
are sufficient numbers in categories or variables of specific interest.

9. Surveys
The aim is to devise precise written questions for answer by a predetermined
group or sample. If closed questions are used, the questionnaire can provide
a means of gathering data from a wide range of respondents in a
comparatively short space of time.
Low response rates are often problematic as they can affect the validity and
reliability of your data.
Questions need careful definition as does their positioning and layout in the
printed questionnaire. These questions can be factual in nature, finding out
basic information for comparison and correlation, or using attitudinal scale
that was popularised by Likert (Bell, 2005) that allow for a greater range of
response than yes or no answers.
“Attitudes can … be ascertained by presenting a list of declarative
statements and asking respondents to rate them in terms of agreement
or disagreement” (Black, 1999, p.227).

10. Analysing the data
The framework for data analysis of replies determined in advance.
Coding your questionnaire: There are five steps involved in the
coding process (Survey Monkey can export this data):
1. Develop the coding frame for both pre-coded (closed) and open
questions.
2. Create a codebook and coding instructions.
3. Code the questionnaires.
4. Transfer the values to a computer (as in an Excel spreadsheet).
5. Check and clean the data (you can make simple graphs with the
data).
Interpretation involves identifying significant results, trends, patterns,
similarities and differences and offering an explanation for them. This
can be expressed in the form of numbers or words in your findings…

11. Interviews
(Image courtesy of beewebhead on Flickr obtained from MIT open access website)

12. Interview- what is it?
It is a qualitative method where you collect what people say
(from your sample) in order to use it as evidence. Its
advantage is that you “can follow up on ideas, probe
responses and investigate motives and feelings” (Bell,
2005, p.157). You can ask the why questions…
It is an occasion to gather information ‘for the record’, with
a specific agenda set out by the researcher, it is not just a
conversation (Denscombe,2007).
When it is processed, the evidence from the interview will
provide data for your research.

13. Sampling – choosing who to interview
There are a number of different ways to design a
sampling frame and this will depend on your approach
and access. Match your methods to your research
problem and work-based learning project.
Purposive - choosing people who can answer the
questions using defined criteria like expertise or their
being in certain roles within the workplace (qualitative)
Representative - selection of the sample population
(quantitative and mixed - i.e. the interviews might follow a
survey) more ‘scientific’ - using a version of probability or
non-probability sampling

14. Types of Interview
Structured - closed questions to illicit information that can
be turned into data, like a social survey in person or for
targeted information, uses identical questions that can
be standardised
Semi-structured - broad topic questions but with some
built in flexibility, usually some standardisation
Open – usually around a general topic but where you allow
the participant to introduce subjects and/or narratives
more freely.

15. Developing questions and trying them out
Interview Questions - ask what you would like to know
about for your project. Think this process through.
Piloting the process - draft the questions and their
sequence. Try this out with a willing participant who can
offer you suggestions for any changes - you can also talk
about this stage with your Academic Advisor. Change
your interview process as needed.
How does this differ from professional networking? How is
it similar?

16. Interview Preparations
Consent Forms - the ‘researcher’ needs to ensure
informed consent from the participants – more in the
campus session on ethics
Access and/or Gatekeeper Permission – you may need
to write or email the Manager telling them what you are
doing and receive the ok to interview people
You may need a letter from Middlesex University to
formalise your agreement with the workplace, especially
if confidentiality agreements are required.

17. Protocols - arranging the meeting
Send an information sheet, interview questions and
consent form prior to the meeting if possible. Tell the
participant what they will need to do to prepare and how
much time you will need. Make clear your needs…
Allow time to contact people to agree to interview, for
example, to work with children you might need a CRB
(Criminal Records Bureau) check.
Most people at work are busy and scheduling is required,
other interviews might take place outside of work
because of confidentiality or preference. You may have
to do interviews over the phone or Skype.

18. Notes and taping
Gain permission to record the audio visual – use 2
devices to ensure you get the interview - digital
devices mean that you can store the information but be
careful about the storage and confidentiality
You may want to take a few notes to highlight certain
responses - have sheets prepared and maybe a
clipboard. This may not be possible in an ‘ethnographic’
situation i.e. an evening performance venue.

19. Doing the interview
Be punctual and have all handouts ready (Consent form,
questionnaires, etc.).
Arrange the surroundings, i.e. the seating and recording
devices, so that the participant is comfortable.
It is important that the participant is supported in the process
and that you also engage with them in a professional manner
BUT that you come away from the interview with the
evidence that you need for your inquiry

20. Asking the questions
Keeping a neutral tone and ‘chairing the process’ to
keep it on time, stopping if necessary or asked to stop.
Taping also means the recording of your voice, so you
want to keep your talking down to a minimum. Don’t ask
leading questions - this is harder than it sounds - BUT try
to ask clarification questions to bring out interesting
points, that is why you are there.
In a semi-structured or open interview or focus group -
there will be extra information that you may need to sift
out, but try not to cut off the flow of the speaker.

21. Managing data from interviews
• Generally the interview data is transcribed into written
findings.
• Quotes should be written as they are spoken, and you
can add in non-verbal responses to the text.
• Generally, this data is kept in a secure place that you
describe in your writing up, and is only viewed by the
original researcher although in some cases academic
advisors may need to check this process.
• In this case, transcriptions and tapes should be kept until
the end of the programme.

22. Analysing interviews
The analysis of data collected from interviews can be
complex. It has been collected within a certain context or a
variety of different ones and must be analysed with that in
mind. Care must be taken that comments are not lifted or
quoted outside the context or out of sequence.
Quotes can be selected because they typify the data
(common responses) or there might be some statements
that are significant though only said once (significant).
Data can also be put into categories that you choose or
those that the participants have indicated as common
practice.

23. Analysing interviews
The qualitative researcher can categorise (code) data that
has emerged into themes, and the data may include the
researchers own ideas, impressions and interpretations
that are observed. The data is organised so that
comparisons, contrasts and evaluations can be made with
the aim of finding the meaning of the evidence presented.
Content analysis can also looks at how often words and
phrases are used to explain meaning by a systematic
review of the data that could be subjected to statistical
significance testing, e.g. categorising the positive and
negative statements in a transcript of the interview or
related documents (like government policy papers).

24. Focus Groups
Your choice of setting, public or private, depends on the situation.

25. Focus Groups
Focus groups are similar to group interviews but they have a
different dynamics because of the interaction between the
participants.
“Focus groups are more likely to include members who
either have similar characteristics or experience… or are
known to have a professional concern about and knowledge
of the issues involved.” (Bell, 2005, p. 162).

26. Focus Groups
Focus groups can also be hard to manage so the role of the
moderator or facilitator (yourself) is an important one to
make sure to provide the ‘trigger’ topic or questions and to
channel the discussion to elicit the data needed for the
research (Denscombe, 2007, p. 179).
With focus groups you may want to have everyone identify
themselves first so that you can identify their voice - these
are more difficult to transcribe.

27. Focus Groups - the setting
Researcher
Gatekeeper
Recording devices
Actual seating arrangement for a recent focus group in which Paula took part.

28. Actions for after the interview or focus group
Transcription should be verbatim – including pauses,
nonverbal responses, repetitions in order to analyse the
data after the interview
If you are transcribing yourself, leave enough time
(rule of thumb is 1 hour = 8 hours of transcription)
OR transcribe only the quotes you need.
You can pay someone to do this but need to insure
confidentiality and anonymity – i.e. use pseudonyms or
name substitutes like Respondent 1, Actor 1, Actor 2 etc.
or describe them by their role UNLESS you have
permission to do otherwise.

29. Troubleshooting
Cancelled appointments - situations change in the workplace - so you
must plan for changes and contingencies (Plan A, Plan B).
Getting people to send you documents if they do not have them to hand.
Working with children and parents’ permission
Working with people you know at work
Getting the details for additional participants for the research project -
non-probability snowballing or signposting…
With focus groups you may want to have everyone identify themselves
first so that you can identify their voice - these are more difficult to
transcribe.