This document is a lecture on data types and data collection methods, led by Paul Bako. It discusses primary and secondary data, various collection techniques including observations, interviews, and questionnaires, and includes examples of each type. Additionally, the document outlines the advantages and disadvantages of different data collection methods and the importance of preparation and ethical considerations in research.

1. FE5056QA: Problem Solving: Methods and Analysis
LECTURE FIVE
Describing data types and data collection types
Module Leader: Paul Bako
Email: Paul.Bako@qa.com

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4. Learning objectives
1. Types of data:
- primary / secondary
2. Data collection techniques:
- observations / interviews / questionnaires

5. What are the two types of data that exist?
Secondary data: data that were collected initially for some other purpose.
Primary data: collecting new data specifically for the purpose

6. Secondary data: Types of Secondary Data
Secondary data include both quantitative (numeric) and qualitative (non-numeric) data,
• Used principally in both descriptive and explanatory research.
• Maybe raw data where there has been little if any processing, or compiled data that have
received some form of selection or summarising.
• They may be structured data, that is organised into a format that is easy to process, such as in a
database or spreadsheet; or unstructured data, which are not easy to search or process as, in their
current form, they do not follow a predefined structure.
• Multiple-source data sets: data that have been re-combined with other data to create larger
datasets.
• Within business and management research projects secondary data are used most frequently in
case study and survey research strategies. However, there is no reason not to use secondary data in
other research strategies, including archival, action and experimental research.

7. Examples of Secondary Data
Most organisations collect and store a wide variety and large volume of data to support their day-
today operations:
• For example, payroll details, organisation charts, copies of letters, minutes of meetings and
business transactions including sales queries and purchases, financials (annual reports).
• Quality daily newspapers contain a wealth of data, such as reports about takeover bids,
interviews with business leaders, photographs of events, graphs and listings of companies’ share
prices.
• Government departments undertake surveys and publish official statistics covering social,
demographic and economic topics. Example: https://www.ons.gov.uk
• Consumer research organisations collect data that are used subsequently by different clients.
• Trade organisations collect data from their members on topics such as sales that are
subsequently aggregated, presented and published.

8. Types and Examples of Secondary Data
NB: Journal Papers are not an acceptable source
of secondary data for dissertations

9. Selected Internet Secondary
Data Gateways and Archives

10. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Secondary Data

11. Evaluating Potential Secondary Data Sources

12. Primary Data Collection Techniques:
(1) Observations
Observation: The systematic viewing, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of
people’s behaviour in a given setting.
Observation methods
• Participant observation: Qualitative: Discovering the meanings that people attach to their
actions and social interactions.
• Structured observation: Quantitative: Concerned with the frequency of actions (‘what’ rather
than ‘why’). Its function is to tell you which things happen, how often and possibly when and in
what sequence rather than why they happen.
• Internet mediated observation: Involves the collection of data from online communities.

13. Dimensions of Observation Technique
• The structure and formality that the researcher uses in designing observation, ranging from
unstructured and informal to structured and formal
• The role of the researcher during observation comprising: their participation in the
observation setting, ranging from full participation in the activity or event being observed,
through passive observation at the margin of this activity or event, to observation in a
detached location as a non-participant
• Their decision to reveal they wish to observe the event or activity for a research purpose; or to
conceal this from those being observed, involving ethical issues that focus on informed
consent
• The nature of the observational setting, involving conducting observation in either a
naturalistic setting or in a contrived situation

14. Classic
Observation
Roles

15. Aspects to Consider in Choosing an
Observer Role

16. Types of Data Generated by Participant
Observation

17. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Participant Observation

18. Advantages of Structured Observation

19. Disadvantages of Structured Observation

20. Primary Data Collection Techniques:
(2) Interviews
A purposeful conversation between two or more people,
during which the interviewer asks concise and
unambiguous questions and listens attentively to the
interviewee talking.
• Such interviews rely on establishing some level of
rapport between the interviewer and the interviewee.
• By listening carefully to an interviewee, an interviewer
will be able to explore points of interest, an

21. Interview Structures

22. Interview Structures
• Structured interviews or quantitative research interviews: Conducted using researcher-
completed questionnaires. You read out each question from the questionnaire exactly as it is
written and in the same tone of voice so that you do not indicate any bias. Then you record the
response on a standardised schedule, usually with pre-coded answers.
• Semi-structured interviews or qualitative research interviews: You start with a predetermined
list of themes, and possibly some key questions related to these themes, to guide the conduct of
each interview.
• Unstructured or in-depth interviews: informal; They are used to explore in depth a general
area in which you are interested. This means that they do not use predetermined and written
down themes or questions to structure or guide the course of the interview. Instead, this type of
interview is entirely exploratory and emergent. You will be interested to find out which themes
emerge from the data you collect from your participants.

23. Number of Participants and Interview Modes

24. Group Interviews and Focus Groups
• Group interview is a general term to describe all semi-structured and in-
depth interviews conducted with two or more interviewees.
• In Focus groups the topic to be explored is predetermined and precisely
defined and the role of the researcher is to facilitate or enable discussion
amongst participants.
• In this way, a focus group is a type of group interview, but not all group
interviews should be labelled as focus groups.

25. Uses of Different Types of Interview for
each Research Purpose

26. When to use Semi-Structured and
In-Depth Interviews
Research purpose is exploratory or explanatory.
• Establishing personal contact is important.
• Questions that need to be asked are:
Complex
Open-ended
Large in number
Likely to need to be varied in the order they are asked

27. Preparation for your Semi-Structured
or In-Depth Interview
• What level of knowledge about your research topic / context will be required in order to
demonstrate your competence and credibility to gain the confidence of your participants?
• What level of knowledge about the culture of your participants will be required in order to
gain their confidence before they are willing to share data?
• What will be the broad focus of your in-depth interview, or what are the themes that you
wish to explore or seek explanations for during a semi structured interview?
• What type of information, if any, will it be useful to send to each participant prior to the
interview?
• What did you agree to supply to your participant when you arranged the interview? Has this
been supplied?
• Have you considered the impact that your interview location may have on participants’
responses and for your own personal safety

28. Opening a Semi-Structured or
In-Depth Interview
The participant is thanked for considering the request for access and for agreeing to the
meeting.
• The purpose of the research and its progress to date were outlined briefly.
• The previously agreed right to confidentiality and anonymity was reiterated
• The participant’s right not to answer any question was emphasised and that the interview
would be stopped if the participant wished.
• The participant was told about the nature of the outputs to which the research was intended
to lead and what would happen to the data collected during and after the project.
• The offer to provide a summary of the research findings was also restated and the
participant was told when this would happen.
• The request to audio-record the interview was restated and, where agreed, this was used
subsequently.
• Summarisation of the themes to be covered, confirmation of the time available and request
to read and sign the informed consent form.

29. Aspects to Consider when Conducting Semi-
Structured and In-Depth Interviews
• appropriateness of your appearance at the interview
• nature of your comments to open the interview
• approach to questioning
• appropriate use of different types of questions
• nature and impact of your behaviour during the interview
• demonstration of attentive listening skills
• scope to summarise and test understanding
• dealing with difficult participation

30. Types of question
• Open questions
• Probing questions
• Specific questions
• Closed questions
• Follow-up questions
• Reflective questions
• Interpretation questions
• Extension questions

31. Difficulties with interview participants

32. Advantages and Disadvantages of Audio-
Recording the Interview

33. Forms of Electronic Interview

34. Primary Data Collection Techniques:
(3) Questionnaires
• All methods of data collection in which each person is asked to respond to the
same set of questions in a predetermined order.
• Need to ensure that it will collect the precise data that you require to answer your
research question(s) and achieve your objectives.
• Careful design of individual questions
Clear and pleasing visual presentation
Lucid explanation of the purpose
Pilot testing
Descriptive or explanatory research

35. Questionnaire Modes

36. Types of Data Available
• Factual or demographic: contain data that are readily available to the respondent and are
likely, assuming the respondent is willing to disclose, to be accurate. These variables include
characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, education, occupation and income. They
are used to explore how attitudes and opinions, and behaviours and events, differ, as well as
to check that the data collected are representative of the total population
• Attitudes and opinions: contain data that respondents may have needed to think about before
answering. They are likely to be influenced by the context in which the question was asked;
recording how respondents feel about something or what they think or believe is true or false.
• Behaviours and events: are also likely to be influenced by context. They contain data about
what people did (behaviours) or what happened (events) in the past, is happening now, or will
happen in the future

37. Data Requirements Table

38. Types of Closed Question
• list, where the respondent is offered a list of items, any of which may be selected
• category, where only one response can be selected from a given set of categories
• ranking, where the respondent is asked to place something in order
• rating, in which a rating device is used to record responses
• quantity, to which the response is a number giving the amount
• matrix, where responses to two or more questions can be recorded using the same
grid
• creating a scale to measure constructs by combining rating questions

39. Category Question: Which of the following tourist sites
did you visit whilst staying in Cusco?

40. Ranking Question

41. Response categories for different types of
rating questions: Agreement

42. Matrix Question

43. Coding Questions

44. Questions?