Fault is a fracture discontinuity along which the rocks on either side have moved past each other . It describes about the parts and types of fault an also the various field evidences for the occurrence of a fault .
What is fault?
Fault terminology
Fault plane:
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Slip and separation:
Separation
Classification of faults
Apparent movement as basis
Normal faults
Graben
Reverse faults:
Strike – slip faults
On the basis of altitude (dip and strike)
Mode of occurrences as basis
Parallel faults
Enechelon faults
Peripheral faults
Radial faults
On the basis of slip
Engineering consideration of faults
A fault is a break or fracture between two blocks of rocks in response to stress.
One block has moved relative to the other block.
The surface along which the blocks move is called a fault plane.
Faulting produced the earthquakes.
Thus earthquakes may occur because:
a) Rocks are initially broken to produce a fault.
b) Movement or re-activation of an already existing fault.
What is fault?
Fault terminology
Fault plane:
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Slip and separation:
Separation
Classification of faults
Apparent movement as basis
Normal faults
Graben
Reverse faults:
Strike – slip faults
On the basis of altitude (dip and strike)
Mode of occurrences as basis
Parallel faults
Enechelon faults
Peripheral faults
Radial faults
On the basis of slip
Engineering consideration of faults
A fault is a break or fracture between two blocks of rocks in response to stress.
One block has moved relative to the other block.
The surface along which the blocks move is called a fault plane.
Faulting produced the earthquakes.
Thus earthquakes may occur because:
a) Rocks are initially broken to produce a fault.
b) Movement or re-activation of an already existing fault.
This lecture includes the fold terminology and classification of folds based of different criteria.
Classification of folds based on:
Direction of closing
Attitude of axial surface
Size of interlimb angle
Profile
Ramsay Classification of folds
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.
Response of material to the arrival of energy fronts released by rupture.
Energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
What are folds?
•Parts of the folds
•Classification of folds
•Classification on the basis of axial planes
•Classification on the basis of curvature(by Ramsay)
•Classification on the basis of plunge
•Engineering considerations
This lecture includes the fold terminology and classification of folds based of different criteria.
Classification of folds based on:
Direction of closing
Attitude of axial surface
Size of interlimb angle
Profile
Ramsay Classification of folds
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.
Response of material to the arrival of energy fronts released by rupture.
Energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.
What are folds?
•Parts of the folds
•Classification of folds
•Classification on the basis of axial planes
•Classification on the basis of curvature(by Ramsay)
•Classification on the basis of plunge
•Engineering considerations
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5. THE PARTS OF A FAULT
• 1. Fault plane.
• 2. Hanging wall and Footwall.
• 3. Hade.
• 4. Throw.
• 5. Heave.
6. 1. Fault plane: A plane along which the
rupture has actually taken place or where
one block is moved with respect to other is
known as ‘Fault Plane’. It may be noted
that such a plane is generally formed along
the line of least resistance.
7. 2. Hanging wall and Footwall:
• The upper block or, in other words, the block
above the fault plane is called ‘Hanging wall’.
The block below the fault plane or, in other
words, beneath the fault plane is called the
Footwall.
8. 3. Hade:
It is the inclination of the fault plane
that is vertical.
4. Throw:
It is the vertical displacement between
the Hanging wall and Footwall.
5. Heave:
It is the horizontal displacement
between the Hanging wall and Footwall.
10. 1. Normal Fault:
• A fault in which Hanging wall (HW) has
apparently come down with respect to
the Footwall (FW) is termed as ‘Normal
Fault’.
11. 2. Reverse Fault:
• A fault in which hanging wall has
apparently gone up with respect to the
Footwall is termed as ‘Reverse Fault’.
12. What is the difference between a
normal fault and a reverse fault ?
• The only difference between the Normal Fault
and Reverse Fault is that, in Normal Fault the
Hanging wall is downward with respect to the
Footwall whereas in a Reverse Fault the
apparent movement of the Hanging wall is
upwards with respect to the Footwall.
13. 3. Thrust Fault:
• A fault which is a very small angle of hade
(i.e. the inclination of fault plane with the
vertical plane is very small) and the Hanging
wall that apparently goes up with respect to
the Footwall is called ‘Thrust Fault’.
14. 4. Vertical Fault:
• A fault in which the fault plane is vertical
(having an angle of hade up to 5 degrees) and
either of the walls has moved upwards or
downwards.
15. 5. Horst Fault:
• Horst (German, Horst = upthrow) Fault is one
in which wedge shaped block has gone up
with respect to the side blocks.
17. 6. Graben Fault or Rift Fault or
Trench fault:
• 6. Graben Fault or Rift Fault or Trench fault:
• Graben (German, Graben= Trench)Fault is one
in which wedge shaped block has down with
respect to side block.
18. 7. Dip Slip Fault
• Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where the
blocks have mostly shifted vertically.
19. 8.Strike Slip Fault
• A fault is a fracture in the earth. These cracks
will run through rock and soil and anything
else that gets in the way. When the earth
moves parallel to the fracture, we call it
a strike-slip fault. Another way to think of this
is as a side-to-side motion.
20. Difference between a Strike-Slip
Fault and a Dip-Slip Fault ?
• Based on direction of slip and movement
along the fault plane. Dip slip - fractures
where the blocks have mostly moved vertically
Strike slip – vertical (or nearly vertical)
fractures where the blocks have mostly moved
horizontally.
21. 9.Oblique Slip Fault
• A fault which has a component of dip-slip and
a component of strike-slip is termed
an oblique-slip fault. Nearly all faults will have
some component of both dip-slip and strike-
slip, so defining a fault as oblique requires
both dip and strike components to be
measurable and significant.
22.
23. 10. Step Fault:
• The term ‘Step Fault’ is applied to that parallel
fault where downthrown of all is in the same
direction and it gives a step-like arrangement.
What is
parallel fault ?
24. Parallel Fault
• A series of faults running more or less parallel
to one another and all handing in the same
direction is called ‘Parallel Fault’.
25. Field Evidence of Faulting:
• 1. Lithological Evidence
• 2. Physiographic Evidence
26. 1. Lithological Evidence
i. Slickensides,
ii. Fault Breccia and Gouge,
iii. Drag,
iv. Dislocations,
v. Repetition and Omission of Beds,
vi. Abrupt Termination of Structures, and
vii. Silicification and Mineralization.
27. • Slickensides:The movements of one wall against
another along fault results in polishing and grooving
of one or both surfaces.
• Fault Breccia and Gouge:Along some faults the
rocks are found highly fractured or even crushed to
angular fragments.
• Drag:Drag is the minor folding of strata along the
walls of a fault. It is caused by fault displacement.
• Dislocations:The displacement of beds, igneous
dykes; veins, etc. along a fault may be seen in either
plan or section.
• Repetition or Omission of Beds:The repetition and
omission of beds often establish the fault.
28. •Abrupt Termination of Structures : An
abrupt termination of structures such as folds,
beds or dykes along a common line or zone
suggests faulting.
Silicification and Mineralization : Action
water while percolation through a fault zone
may deposit fine-grained Quartz causing
Silicification. Many mineral deposits have also
been localized along faults.
29. Physiographic Evidence:
• Fault Scrap: An actual surface of fault
displacement may stand up unmodified by
erosion as in escarpment or cliff. It is called a
‘Fault Scrap’. In this case the escarpment faces
towards the down throw side.
• Fait Line Scrap : Fault frequently brings together
resistant and non-resistant rocks. The resistant
rock will stand out prominently as ridge along a
fault zone. Such ridges that will generally face the
upthrow side of the faults are called ‘Fault Scrap
Side’.
30. • Fault Control or Streams : Streams may be
guided in the direction and course of their
flow by faulting such stream, which may
follow a straight line or make approximately
right angle turns.
