This document describes the processes for producing primary and secondary aluminum. Primary aluminum production involves two main steps: 1) extracting alumina (Al2O3) from bauxite ore using the Bayer process, and 2) extracting aluminum from the alumina through electrolysis. Secondary aluminum production recycles scrap aluminum through remelting, which requires much less energy than primary production. Emissions of PFC gases like CF4 and C2F6 can occur during electrolysis when low alumina levels cause an "anode effect" that raises electrical tensions.
Bauxite is the main ore of aluminum. It was first discovered in 1821 in southern France and is typically found near the surface in tropical and subtropical regions. Bauxite consists primarily of aluminum hydroxides and oxides with impurities like silica. It is refined via the Bayer process to produce alumina, which is then smelted using the Hall-Héroult process to produce aluminum. Aluminum has many uses including in transportation, packaging, and construction due to its light weight and corrosion resistance.
Aluminium is extracted through an electrolysis process using cryolite to lower the melting point of bauxite ore. Large electrolysis plants run continuously, applying a strong electric current to molten alumina to produce aluminum ions at the cathode. The byproduct is oxygen or carbon dioxide from the carbon anode. Anodizing produces a thicker, stronger protective oxide layer on aluminum's surface, allowing its use in various applications where its light weight and conductivity are valuable.
Cape Unit 2 Module 3 Aluminium Extraction Cram SheetDenison Dwarkah
Everything you need to know for CAPE Unit 2 Module 3 on the chemistry of aluminium extraction. It will allow you to answer any past paper question on this topic. The physical properties of aluminium were left out since you can easily find those yourself.
Production of aluminum (emphasis on energy and materials requirements) Thanos Paraschos
This document summarizes the production of aluminum through primary and secondary processes. Primary production involves refining bauxite ore through the Bayer process to produce alumina, which is then reduced to aluminum using the Hall-Héroult electrolysis process. Secondary production recycles scrap aluminum, which requires only 5% of the energy of primary production. Globally in 2010, 41.1 million tons of aluminum were produced using 210 million tons of bauxite as input. The production processes are energy intensive, requiring around 15 kWh of electricity to produce 1 kg of aluminum, or about 3% of global electricity production.
The document discusses the production of aluminum through the Hall-Heroult process. It involves dissolving alumina in a cryolite electrolyte and passing an electric current to reduce the alumina to aluminum. Key raw materials include alumina, carbon anodes, cryolite, aluminum fluoride and large amounts of electrical power. Prebaked carbon anodes are made from coke, pitch and butts and are essential to the electrolysis process. The continuous smelting process requires maintaining the potline 24/7 to avoid costly shutdowns.
Aluminum is a lightweight metal that is widely used due to its properties and extraction process. It can be extracted from bauxite ore through the Bayer process, which involves dissolving the aluminum-containing minerals in sodium hydroxide to produce alumina, which is then electrolyzed to produce aluminum metal. Aluminum is commonly used in alloys to improve strength and is applied in transportation and construction due to its corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, and high strength to weight ratio.
This document summarizes the extraction process of aluminium. It begins by describing how aluminium is commonly found combined with other elements in rocks. It then discusses bauxite, the main ore for aluminium, which forms from the weathering of aluminium-containing rocks in tropical areas. The summary describes the two main steps to extract aluminium as purifying bauxite into high purity alumina using the Bayer process, and then reducing the alumina using carbon in an electrolysis process to produce molten aluminium metal. It concludes by listing some key uses of aluminium such as in transportation and electrical applications due to its light weight, conductivity, and corrosion resistance.
Bauxite is the main ore of aluminum. It was first discovered in 1821 in southern France and is typically found near the surface in tropical and subtropical regions. Bauxite consists primarily of aluminum hydroxides and oxides with impurities like silica. It is refined via the Bayer process to produce alumina, which is then smelted using the Hall-Héroult process to produce aluminum. Aluminum has many uses including in transportation, packaging, and construction due to its light weight and corrosion resistance.
Aluminium is extracted through an electrolysis process using cryolite to lower the melting point of bauxite ore. Large electrolysis plants run continuously, applying a strong electric current to molten alumina to produce aluminum ions at the cathode. The byproduct is oxygen or carbon dioxide from the carbon anode. Anodizing produces a thicker, stronger protective oxide layer on aluminum's surface, allowing its use in various applications where its light weight and conductivity are valuable.
Cape Unit 2 Module 3 Aluminium Extraction Cram SheetDenison Dwarkah
Everything you need to know for CAPE Unit 2 Module 3 on the chemistry of aluminium extraction. It will allow you to answer any past paper question on this topic. The physical properties of aluminium were left out since you can easily find those yourself.
Production of aluminum (emphasis on energy and materials requirements) Thanos Paraschos
This document summarizes the production of aluminum through primary and secondary processes. Primary production involves refining bauxite ore through the Bayer process to produce alumina, which is then reduced to aluminum using the Hall-Héroult electrolysis process. Secondary production recycles scrap aluminum, which requires only 5% of the energy of primary production. Globally in 2010, 41.1 million tons of aluminum were produced using 210 million tons of bauxite as input. The production processes are energy intensive, requiring around 15 kWh of electricity to produce 1 kg of aluminum, or about 3% of global electricity production.
The document discusses the production of aluminum through the Hall-Heroult process. It involves dissolving alumina in a cryolite electrolyte and passing an electric current to reduce the alumina to aluminum. Key raw materials include alumina, carbon anodes, cryolite, aluminum fluoride and large amounts of electrical power. Prebaked carbon anodes are made from coke, pitch and butts and are essential to the electrolysis process. The continuous smelting process requires maintaining the potline 24/7 to avoid costly shutdowns.
Aluminum is a lightweight metal that is widely used due to its properties and extraction process. It can be extracted from bauxite ore through the Bayer process, which involves dissolving the aluminum-containing minerals in sodium hydroxide to produce alumina, which is then electrolyzed to produce aluminum metal. Aluminum is commonly used in alloys to improve strength and is applied in transportation and construction due to its corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, and high strength to weight ratio.
This document summarizes the extraction process of aluminium. It begins by describing how aluminium is commonly found combined with other elements in rocks. It then discusses bauxite, the main ore for aluminium, which forms from the weathering of aluminium-containing rocks in tropical areas. The summary describes the two main steps to extract aluminium as purifying bauxite into high purity alumina using the Bayer process, and then reducing the alumina using carbon in an electrolysis process to produce molten aluminium metal. It concludes by listing some key uses of aluminium such as in transportation and electrical applications due to its light weight, conductivity, and corrosion resistance.
The document discusses three key processes related to the extraction of aluminium:
1) The Bayer process extracts aluminium from bauxite ore by crushing it, heating it with sodium hydroxide, and filtering out impurities to produce aluminium hydroxide.
2) In the Hall-Héroult process, aluminium oxide is mixed with calcium fluoride or sodium aluminium fluoride and electrolyzed to produce oxygen and molten aluminium.
3) The Bayer process is preferred over the Hall-Héroult process for extracting aluminium as it allows for purification based on aluminium oxides' amphoteric nature, since aluminium must be reduced from its compounds in ores.
This document discusses the Bayer process for producing alumina from bauxite. It covers key steps like desilication, digestion, and precipitation. Desilication involves converting reactive silica in bauxite into an insoluble sodalite complex. Digestion uses high temperatures and caustic soda to dissolve alumina from bauxite. The type of digestion used depends on bauxite composition and can be atmospheric, low pressure, or high temperature. Separating red mud waste from pregnant liquor is also an important step.
The document discusses the two primary processes used to produce aluminum: the Bayer process and the Hall-Héroult process. The Bayer process extracts alumina (aluminum oxide) from bauxite ore. The Hall-Héroult process then uses electrolysis to reduce alumina into molten aluminum metal. It involves dissolving alumina in a molten cryolite bath and using carbon anodes and iron cathodes to apply a current and separate the aluminum ions from oxygen. This produces pure aluminum metal at the cathode and consumes the carbon anode.
This document discusses the extractive metallurgy process for lead. It describes lead properties, history of lead use, health effects, lead ores and locations, ore dressing, size reduction, roasting, smelting, refining including the Parkes and Betts processes, and lead products and byproducts. The overall process involves extracting lead from its ore, reducing and refining it to remove impurities and produce a high purity lead product.
Zinc occurs naturally as sulfide and carbonate ores. It is extracted through crushing, concentration, roasting, and reduction processes. The concentrated ore is roasted in air to convert zinc sulfide to zinc oxide. The zinc oxide is then mixed with coke and heated in a vertical retort furnace to produce zinc vapors, which condense to produce molten zinc. The molten zinc is further purified through electrolysis to produce high purity zinc. Zinc is a bluish-white metal with a melting point of 420°C. It is used for galvanization of iron and in making alloys like brass and German silver.
The document outlines the process of manufacturing steel. Raw materials like iron ore, limestone, and coke are fed into a blast furnace along with preheated air. Inside the blast furnace, coke burns and acts as a reducing agent to remove oxygen from iron oxide. The chemical reactions produce pig iron and slag as products. Pig iron contains around 4% carbon and needs further processing to become steel using methods like the Bessemer process or electric arc furnace.
The document discusses different types and production processes of steel. It begins by introducing different types of steel based on carbon content, such as mild steel and alloy steels. It then describes the basic steelmaking route involving iron making, primary and secondary steelmaking, and continuous casting. The main secondary steelmaking processes discussed are AOD, VOD, CLU, ladle furnace treatment, and RH degassing. Each process's purpose and functioning are explained briefly.
This document provides information on the physical and chemical properties of zinc, as well as its various applications and production processes. Some key points:
- Zinc has a melting point of 419.6°C and boiling point of 906°C. It has a crystal structure of HCP and density of 7.14 g/cm3.
- Its main uses include galvanization to prevent corrosion, die casting due to its low melting point, and in producing alloys like brass and bronze.
- Zinc is extracted from zinc ores through mining, crushing, roasting, and pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical processes to produce zinc metal.
- Its alloys have applications in
The document summarizes the process of smelting iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. Key points include:
1. Iron ore, coke, and limestone are charged into the top of the blast furnace. Hot air is blown into the bottom to support combustion.
2. Chemical reactions reduce the iron and melt it, while the limestone forms a slag that separates the iron from impurities.
3. Molten pig iron and slag are tapped off the bottom of the furnace periodically. Pig iron contains 3-4% carbon and other elements picked up during the smelting process.
Aluminum is produced through a three step process: 1) mining bauxite ore, 2) refining bauxite into aluminum oxide, and 3) electrolytically reducing aluminum oxide into metallic aluminum. This electrolytic reduction process, known as the Hall-Heroult process, involves dissolving aluminum oxide in a cryolite bath and passing an electric current through it to dissociate the aluminum oxide into molten aluminum and oxygen. Large carbon blocks suspended in the solution serve as the anodes. The process requires significant amounts of electricity and emits carbon dioxide and other gases. Modern aluminum smelters typically include 300-720 electrolytic cells connected in series to continuously produce aluminum through this energy-intensive process.
Lead is a soft, dense metal commonly used in batteries, paints, and other products. It is extracted from galena ore through processes like concentration, flotation, roasting, sintering, and smelting to produce molten lead bullion. Further refining removes impurities through processes like drossing and the Parkes process to produce 99-99.999% pure lead, which is then cast into blocks. Byproducts include sulfuric acid, slag, and air pollution, which require proper handling and disposal to prevent environmental contamination.
The document discusses various methods for melting aluminium and dealing with hydrogen that can cause porosity in aluminium castings. It describes furnace types used for melting aluminium, such as reverberatory and induction furnaces. It also discusses sources of hydrogen absorption from the environment or reactions during melting, and methods for degassing molten aluminium like bubbling nitrogen or chlorine gas through the melt or using flux treatments. Pre-solidification is also mentioned as another degassing technique.
The document discusses zinc extraction processes. There are two main categories of processes: pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical. Approximately 80% of the world's zinc is produced via hydrometallurgical processes like the roast-leach-electrowin process. This process involves roasting zinc sulfide concentrate to produce zinc oxide, which is then leached and electrowon to extract zinc metal. An alternative is the pressure leach process, which combines roasting and leaching into a single step to produce zinc sulfate solution for electrowinning.
A review of the production of ferromanganese in blast furnaceJorge Madias
The production of high-carbon ferromanganese in blast furnaces is reviewed, based on public literature and
requests to consultants and suppliers to the industry.
The review includes an overview of the FeMn production in blast furnaces during latest decades; main
features of raw materials and reductants, and its influence on the process; raw materials preparation, including
sintering; design features of the blast furnaces, lining, cooling, operating practice, combination with hot metal
production, offgas treatment, specific consumption of coke and Mn ore, casting practice, and a comparison
with submerged arc furnaces.
The document summarizes the process of extracting aluminium from bauxite ore. Bauxite ore is dissolved in cryolite to lower its melting point before being electrolyzed in a molten electrolyte. During electrolysis, positively charged aluminium ions move to the negatively charged carbon cathode, gaining electrons and forming aluminium atoms. Negatively charged oxide ions move to the positively charged carbon anode, losing electrons and forming oxygen gas. Some oxygen reacts with the carbon anode to form carbon dioxide, requiring frequent anode replacement. The overall process uses electrolysis to extract aluminium from bauxite ore dissolved in cryolite.
The document describes the process of forming iron and steel using a blast furnace. It involves the following key steps:
1. Sinter is added to the top of the blast furnace. Air is blasted into the bottom to fuel reactions that melt the iron out of the sinter.
2. Molten iron collects at the bottom of the furnace and is tapped out periodically. Slag floats on top and is also tapped out. Wasted gases exit from the top.
3. The iron produced contains carbon and impurities, making it cast iron. Steel is made by removing carbon from cast iron through oxidation, then adding other metals to produce alloys with specific properties.
The steel making process involves three main stages:
1) Preparing iron ore by removing impurities through washing, crushing, and sieving.
2) Using a blast furnace to heat iron ore, coke, and limestone above 1500°C to produce pig iron.
3) Further processing pig iron in a converter to reduce its carbon content and remove impurities by adding oxygen and scrap, producing the final liquid steel.
This document provides a 3-paragraph summary of electric arc furnace steelmaking processes:
1. Melting and refining operations involve removing impurities like phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon from steel using oxygen. Oxygen is injected to form oxides in the slag. Phosphorus is removed early while the bath is cool to prevent reversion.
2. During tapping, the furnace tilts and steel pours into a ladle for further processing. Slag is formed to control sulfur. Furnace turnaround involves maintenance like lining repairs between heats.
3. Mechanical systems like hydraulics, cooling water, and lubrication are integral to furnace operation and movement of components.
- Aluminum is extracted from bauxite ore through the Bayer process, which purifies the aluminum oxide. The aluminum oxide is then electrolyzed in a cryolite solution to produce aluminum metal.
- Titanium is extracted from rutile ore by first converting it to titanium tetrachloride, then reducing it with magnesium or sodium to produce titanium metal.
- Improving extraction methods involves using cheaper or less energy intensive reduction processes like indirect carbothermic reduction of aluminum.
This document provides an overview of a lecture on aluminium alloys. It discusses the subjects that will be covered, including the production, properties, and applications of aluminium alloys. The production of aluminium is explained, outlining the Bayer process and Hall–Héroult process. The physical properties of aluminium are presented. Methods of extracting aluminium from bauxite and other sources are summarized.
The document summarizes several important industrial chemical processes:
1) The Haber process produces ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gases using high temperature, pressure, and an iron oxide catalyst.
2) The contact process produces sulfuric acid via three reactions, using catalysts and optimized conditions to maximize sulfur trioxide production.
3) Lime is produced by heating limestone to decompose it into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide, and calcium hydroxide is made by adding water to calcium oxide.
The document discusses three key processes related to the extraction of aluminium:
1) The Bayer process extracts aluminium from bauxite ore by crushing it, heating it with sodium hydroxide, and filtering out impurities to produce aluminium hydroxide.
2) In the Hall-Héroult process, aluminium oxide is mixed with calcium fluoride or sodium aluminium fluoride and electrolyzed to produce oxygen and molten aluminium.
3) The Bayer process is preferred over the Hall-Héroult process for extracting aluminium as it allows for purification based on aluminium oxides' amphoteric nature, since aluminium must be reduced from its compounds in ores.
This document discusses the Bayer process for producing alumina from bauxite. It covers key steps like desilication, digestion, and precipitation. Desilication involves converting reactive silica in bauxite into an insoluble sodalite complex. Digestion uses high temperatures and caustic soda to dissolve alumina from bauxite. The type of digestion used depends on bauxite composition and can be atmospheric, low pressure, or high temperature. Separating red mud waste from pregnant liquor is also an important step.
The document discusses the two primary processes used to produce aluminum: the Bayer process and the Hall-Héroult process. The Bayer process extracts alumina (aluminum oxide) from bauxite ore. The Hall-Héroult process then uses electrolysis to reduce alumina into molten aluminum metal. It involves dissolving alumina in a molten cryolite bath and using carbon anodes and iron cathodes to apply a current and separate the aluminum ions from oxygen. This produces pure aluminum metal at the cathode and consumes the carbon anode.
This document discusses the extractive metallurgy process for lead. It describes lead properties, history of lead use, health effects, lead ores and locations, ore dressing, size reduction, roasting, smelting, refining including the Parkes and Betts processes, and lead products and byproducts. The overall process involves extracting lead from its ore, reducing and refining it to remove impurities and produce a high purity lead product.
Zinc occurs naturally as sulfide and carbonate ores. It is extracted through crushing, concentration, roasting, and reduction processes. The concentrated ore is roasted in air to convert zinc sulfide to zinc oxide. The zinc oxide is then mixed with coke and heated in a vertical retort furnace to produce zinc vapors, which condense to produce molten zinc. The molten zinc is further purified through electrolysis to produce high purity zinc. Zinc is a bluish-white metal with a melting point of 420°C. It is used for galvanization of iron and in making alloys like brass and German silver.
The document outlines the process of manufacturing steel. Raw materials like iron ore, limestone, and coke are fed into a blast furnace along with preheated air. Inside the blast furnace, coke burns and acts as a reducing agent to remove oxygen from iron oxide. The chemical reactions produce pig iron and slag as products. Pig iron contains around 4% carbon and needs further processing to become steel using methods like the Bessemer process or electric arc furnace.
The document discusses different types and production processes of steel. It begins by introducing different types of steel based on carbon content, such as mild steel and alloy steels. It then describes the basic steelmaking route involving iron making, primary and secondary steelmaking, and continuous casting. The main secondary steelmaking processes discussed are AOD, VOD, CLU, ladle furnace treatment, and RH degassing. Each process's purpose and functioning are explained briefly.
This document provides information on the physical and chemical properties of zinc, as well as its various applications and production processes. Some key points:
- Zinc has a melting point of 419.6°C and boiling point of 906°C. It has a crystal structure of HCP and density of 7.14 g/cm3.
- Its main uses include galvanization to prevent corrosion, die casting due to its low melting point, and in producing alloys like brass and bronze.
- Zinc is extracted from zinc ores through mining, crushing, roasting, and pyrometallurgical or hydrometallurgical processes to produce zinc metal.
- Its alloys have applications in
The document summarizes the process of smelting iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. Key points include:
1. Iron ore, coke, and limestone are charged into the top of the blast furnace. Hot air is blown into the bottom to support combustion.
2. Chemical reactions reduce the iron and melt it, while the limestone forms a slag that separates the iron from impurities.
3. Molten pig iron and slag are tapped off the bottom of the furnace periodically. Pig iron contains 3-4% carbon and other elements picked up during the smelting process.
Aluminum is produced through a three step process: 1) mining bauxite ore, 2) refining bauxite into aluminum oxide, and 3) electrolytically reducing aluminum oxide into metallic aluminum. This electrolytic reduction process, known as the Hall-Heroult process, involves dissolving aluminum oxide in a cryolite bath and passing an electric current through it to dissociate the aluminum oxide into molten aluminum and oxygen. Large carbon blocks suspended in the solution serve as the anodes. The process requires significant amounts of electricity and emits carbon dioxide and other gases. Modern aluminum smelters typically include 300-720 electrolytic cells connected in series to continuously produce aluminum through this energy-intensive process.
Lead is a soft, dense metal commonly used in batteries, paints, and other products. It is extracted from galena ore through processes like concentration, flotation, roasting, sintering, and smelting to produce molten lead bullion. Further refining removes impurities through processes like drossing and the Parkes process to produce 99-99.999% pure lead, which is then cast into blocks. Byproducts include sulfuric acid, slag, and air pollution, which require proper handling and disposal to prevent environmental contamination.
The document discusses various methods for melting aluminium and dealing with hydrogen that can cause porosity in aluminium castings. It describes furnace types used for melting aluminium, such as reverberatory and induction furnaces. It also discusses sources of hydrogen absorption from the environment or reactions during melting, and methods for degassing molten aluminium like bubbling nitrogen or chlorine gas through the melt or using flux treatments. Pre-solidification is also mentioned as another degassing technique.
The document discusses zinc extraction processes. There are two main categories of processes: pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical. Approximately 80% of the world's zinc is produced via hydrometallurgical processes like the roast-leach-electrowin process. This process involves roasting zinc sulfide concentrate to produce zinc oxide, which is then leached and electrowon to extract zinc metal. An alternative is the pressure leach process, which combines roasting and leaching into a single step to produce zinc sulfate solution for electrowinning.
A review of the production of ferromanganese in blast furnaceJorge Madias
The production of high-carbon ferromanganese in blast furnaces is reviewed, based on public literature and
requests to consultants and suppliers to the industry.
The review includes an overview of the FeMn production in blast furnaces during latest decades; main
features of raw materials and reductants, and its influence on the process; raw materials preparation, including
sintering; design features of the blast furnaces, lining, cooling, operating practice, combination with hot metal
production, offgas treatment, specific consumption of coke and Mn ore, casting practice, and a comparison
with submerged arc furnaces.
The document summarizes the process of extracting aluminium from bauxite ore. Bauxite ore is dissolved in cryolite to lower its melting point before being electrolyzed in a molten electrolyte. During electrolysis, positively charged aluminium ions move to the negatively charged carbon cathode, gaining electrons and forming aluminium atoms. Negatively charged oxide ions move to the positively charged carbon anode, losing electrons and forming oxygen gas. Some oxygen reacts with the carbon anode to form carbon dioxide, requiring frequent anode replacement. The overall process uses electrolysis to extract aluminium from bauxite ore dissolved in cryolite.
The document describes the process of forming iron and steel using a blast furnace. It involves the following key steps:
1. Sinter is added to the top of the blast furnace. Air is blasted into the bottom to fuel reactions that melt the iron out of the sinter.
2. Molten iron collects at the bottom of the furnace and is tapped out periodically. Slag floats on top and is also tapped out. Wasted gases exit from the top.
3. The iron produced contains carbon and impurities, making it cast iron. Steel is made by removing carbon from cast iron through oxidation, then adding other metals to produce alloys with specific properties.
The steel making process involves three main stages:
1) Preparing iron ore by removing impurities through washing, crushing, and sieving.
2) Using a blast furnace to heat iron ore, coke, and limestone above 1500°C to produce pig iron.
3) Further processing pig iron in a converter to reduce its carbon content and remove impurities by adding oxygen and scrap, producing the final liquid steel.
This document provides a 3-paragraph summary of electric arc furnace steelmaking processes:
1. Melting and refining operations involve removing impurities like phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon from steel using oxygen. Oxygen is injected to form oxides in the slag. Phosphorus is removed early while the bath is cool to prevent reversion.
2. During tapping, the furnace tilts and steel pours into a ladle for further processing. Slag is formed to control sulfur. Furnace turnaround involves maintenance like lining repairs between heats.
3. Mechanical systems like hydraulics, cooling water, and lubrication are integral to furnace operation and movement of components.
- Aluminum is extracted from bauxite ore through the Bayer process, which purifies the aluminum oxide. The aluminum oxide is then electrolyzed in a cryolite solution to produce aluminum metal.
- Titanium is extracted from rutile ore by first converting it to titanium tetrachloride, then reducing it with magnesium or sodium to produce titanium metal.
- Improving extraction methods involves using cheaper or less energy intensive reduction processes like indirect carbothermic reduction of aluminum.
This document provides an overview of a lecture on aluminium alloys. It discusses the subjects that will be covered, including the production, properties, and applications of aluminium alloys. The production of aluminium is explained, outlining the Bayer process and Hall–Héroult process. The physical properties of aluminium are presented. Methods of extracting aluminium from bauxite and other sources are summarized.
The document summarizes several important industrial chemical processes:
1) The Haber process produces ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gases using high temperature, pressure, and an iron oxide catalyst.
2) The contact process produces sulfuric acid via three reactions, using catalysts and optimized conditions to maximize sulfur trioxide production.
3) Lime is produced by heating limestone to decompose it into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide, and calcium hydroxide is made by adding water to calcium oxide.
The document summarizes the manufacturing process of aluminum. It describes that aluminum is extracted from the bauxite ore through the Bayer process, which refines bauxite to produce aluminum oxide. It then goes through the Hall-Héroult process of smelting aluminum oxide to release pure aluminum using electrolysis. The document outlines each step of the Bayer process and Hall-Héroult process in detail. It also mentions alternative carbothermic reduction processes that can produce aluminum and byproducts like syngas in a more energy efficient manner compared to the conventional processes. Lastly, it discusses the various uses and advantages of aluminum as a building material.
This document summarizes the process of steel manufacturing in New Zealand. Iron ore is first reduced to iron in rotary kilns, producing a substance called reduced primary concentrate and char. This is then melted into molten iron in electric melters. The molten iron undergoes vanadium recovery and is then converted to steel in a Klockner Oxygen Blown Maxhutte furnace. Oxygen is blown through the furnace to oxidize impurities, which are separated as slag. Alloying elements are then added to produce the final steel product.
The document summarizes the process of converting iron ore into steel. It involves two main steps:
1. Production of molten iron from iron oxides through reduction in rotary kilns using carbon monoxide produced from coal and limestone. This yields a product called RPCC that is around 70% metallic iron.
2. Steel making which involves removing impurities from the molten iron through oxidation and producing molten steel. Key processes include vanadium recovery, using oxygen to create slag and stirring the metal, and the KOBM process to blow oxygen and further purify the molten iron into steel.
This document provides an overview of aluminum extraction and production. It discusses the abundance and useful properties of aluminum. The key extraction process is the Bayer process, which uses caustic soda to extract alumina from bauxite ore. The alumina is then used as the raw material input for the Hall-Héroult electrolysis process, which produces aluminum metal. This process uses carbon anodes and cathodes submerged in a cryolite bath containing dissolved alumina. An electric current is passed through the bath to electrolytically reduce the alumina to molten aluminum. Additives are used to optimize the electrolysis conditions. The process requires substantial energy and raw material inputs to produce aluminum on an industrial scale.
The document discusses metal extraction processes for copper and aluminum. For copper, it describes the Freeport process for hydrometallurgical extraction. Key steps include oxidation-neutralization in autoclaves, separation of copper leach liquor and solids, and electrowinning. For aluminum, it provides an overview of aluminum ore types and discusses extracting aluminum from bauxite ore using the Bayer process, which involves washing, drying, grinding the bauxite before leaching it with sodium hydroxide.
This document discusses emission reduction from copper and aluminum production. It outlines the primary production processes for both metals and describes the main sources of emissions. For copper, emissions are primarily from roasting and smelting sulfidic concentrates, though modern smelters now achieve over 98% sulfur fixation. For aluminum, emissions are from polyfluorinated compounds during electrolysis and solid wastes. The document also describes flash furnace smelting as an energy efficient technique used in Europe for copper and nickel production. Finally, it discusses future requirements for emission control techniques in copper production.
The document summarizes the process of primary aluminum production. It involves two main steps:
1) Production of alumina (Al2O3) from bauxite ore using the Bayer process, which involves leaching the ore with sodium hydroxide followed by precipitation and calcination.
2) Electrolytic decomposition of the alumina in a cryolite bath using the Hall-Héroult process, where the alumina dissolves and aluminum plates out on the cathode. Large amounts of electric power are required. Additives such as calcium fluoride are used to reduce the melting point of the cryolite electrolyte.
Aluminum is the third most abundant element in the earth's crust and is obtained from bauxite ore. It has been used throughout history but was once very valuable. Today, more aluminum is produced annually than all other nonferrous metals combined. It is produced via the Bayer process of extracting aluminum hydroxide from bauxite ore and electrolytically reducing aluminum oxide to aluminum metal in the Hall-Heroult process. Aluminum is a light, corrosion resistant, electrically and thermally conductive metal that is ductile, impermeable, odorless, and 100% recyclable. It has many applications including in packaging, construction, transportation and power transmission.
The document provides an overview of the extraction of metals. It discusses the extraction of iron through the blast furnace process using carbon reduction. Slag is produced to remove silica and waste gases can cause pollution. Steel is made from iron by removing excess carbon. The extraction of aluminium requires electrolysis due to its position in the reactivity series. Titanium extraction involves converting the oxide to the chloride then reducing with sodium.
1. Iron was first discovered during the Bronze Age and was an important material during the Industrial Revolution. Major advances in iron and steel production included the Bessemer process in 1856 and widespread electrification in the late 1800s.
2. The main iron ore used is hematite, which is around 65-70% iron. Other raw materials needed are coke, limestone, and scrap iron/steel. Coke is used as fuel and produces carbon monoxide to reduce iron from the ore. Limestone acts as a flux to remove impurities.
3. In iron making, a blast furnace uses hot gases to reduce iron ore into molten pig iron in a process taking around 2 hours.
Ferroalloys are alloys of iron with other elements like manganese, chromium, or silicon. They are produced through carbothermic reduction in open arc or submerged arc furnaces. Major ferroalloys include ferromanganese, silicomanganese, ferrosilicon, and ferrochrome. Ferroalloys are added to molten steel to improve properties like strength and corrosion resistance and have applications in industries like automotive, transportation, and construction. The ferroalloys industry is expected to grow due to increasing demand from the global steel sector and adoption in emerging technologies.
The document discusses extractive metallurgy processes for zinc extraction. It describes the major zinc ores and details several pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical extraction processes. The key processes are roasting to produce zinc oxide from zinc sulfide ores, followed by leaching and electrolysis to recover zinc. Approximately 80% of zinc is produced via hydrometallurgical routes like roast-leach-electrowinning.
The document discusses extractive metallurgy processes for zinc. It describes major zinc ores like sphalerite and zincite. Common extraction methods include retort processes, electrolysis, and imperial smelting. Currently, about 80% of zinc is extracted via roast-leach-electrowinning which involves roasting zinc sulfide concentrates, leaching the roasted product, and electrolysis to deposit zinc on cathodes. Alternative methods like pressure leaching and imperial smelting directly produce zinc sulfate solutions or simultaneously extract zinc and lead.
Non Ferrous Metals (BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION)Andhra University
Non-Ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin, as well as precious metals like gold and silver. Their main advantage over ferrous materials is their malleability. They also have no iron content, giving them a higher resistance to rust and corrosion, and making them ideal for gutters, liquid pipes, roofing and outdoor signs. Lastly they are non-magnetic, which is important for many electronic and wiring applications.
Aluminum
Aluminum is lightweight, soft and low strength. Aluminum is easily cast, forged, machined and welded. It’s not suitable for high-temperature environments. Because aluminum is lightweight, it is a good choice for the manufacturing of aircraft and food cans. Aluminum is also used in castings, pistons, railways, cars, and kitchen utensils.
Iron is extracted from its main ore, haematite, in a blast furnace. Haematite, coke, and limestone are fed into the top of the blast furnace where temperatures reach 1500°C. The main reducing agent, carbon monoxide, reduces the iron(III) oxide to iron. The molten iron collects at the bottom and is tapped off, while the limestone removes sandy impurities to form a slag.
Aluminum is extracted through the Bayer process and Hall-Héroult process. In the Bayer process, bauxite ore is treated with sodium hydroxide at high temperature and pressure to produce aluminum hydroxide, which is then calcined to produce aluminum oxide. The Hall-Héroult process involves electrolysis of aluminum oxide dissolved in molten cryolite, where carbon anodes are consumed and aluminum metal deposits at the cathode. Together these two hydrometallurgical processes allow for efficient extraction of aluminum from bauxite ore.
1) Researchers successfully produced SiAlON ceramics from industrial wastes like silicon sludge and aluminum dross using a nitriding combustion process.
2) The nitriding combustion process allows synthesis of ceramic powders in an energy efficient way while recycling wastes.
3) Specifically, the process was used to synthesize SiAlON powders from silicon sludge generated in silicon wafer production and from aluminum dross from aluminum smelting. Desert sand was also used to synthesize silicon oxynitride powder.
pdf on modern chemical manufacture (1).pdfgovinda pathak
1. Ammonia is produced by heating nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressures of 200-900 atm and temperatures of 380-450°C in the presence of an iron catalyst.
2. Sulfuric acid is produced via the contact process, which involves catalytically oxidizing sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide and absorbing it in concentrated sulfuric acid.
3. Sodium hydroxide is produced through the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution using a diaphragm cell, where chlorine gas forms at the anode and hydrogen gas forms at the cathode.
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Fabricación de aluminio (emisiones de proceso)
1. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-1-
FABRICACIÓN DE ALUMINIO (EMISIONES DE PROCESO)
ACTIVIDADES CUBIERTAS SEGÚN NOMENCLATURA
NOMENCLATURA CÓDIGO
SNAP 97 04.03.01/ 04.03.09
CRF 2C3a/2C3b/2C3
NFR 2C3
Descripción de los procesos generadores de emisiones
El aluminio se fabrica y recicla mediante dos rutas que son complementarias, dado que la primera parte del mineral de aluminio
(obtención de aluminio primario) y la segunda recicla los múltiples residuos de aluminio al final de su vida útil (aluminio
secundario).
Proceso obtención aluminio primario
El aluminio forma parte de la corteza terrestre en una proporción aproximada al 8%, lo que lo convierte en el elemento químico
más abundante después del oxígeno (47%) y el silicio (28%). No se presenta puro en la naturaleza sino que aparece combinado
fundamentalmente con el oxígeno, formando óxidos e hidróxidos, que a su vez se hallan mezclados con óxidos de otros metales y
con sílice. El mineral del que se extrae el aluminio casi exclusivamente se llama bauxita.
La obtención del aluminio se realiza en dos fases:
1. La extracción de la alúmina (Al2O3) a partir de la bauxita (proceso Bayer):
La primera fase de la obtención del aluminio consiste en aislar la alúmina (óxido de aluminio) de los minerales que la
acompañan. Para ello el primer paso es triturar la bauxita hasta obtener un polvo fino, que es mezclado con sosa
cáustica líquida y calentado a alta presión. La sosa disuelve los compuestos del aluminio que, al encontrarse en un medio
fuertemente básico, se hidratan:
Al(OH)3 + OH
-
+ Na
*
→ Al(OH)4
-
+ Na
*
AlO(OH)2 + OH
-
+ H2O + Na
*
→ Al(OH)4
-
+ Na
*
Los materiales no alumínicos se separan por decantación. La solución cáustica del aluminio se enfría luego para
recristalizar el hidróxido y separarlo de la sosa, que se recupera para su ulterior uso. Finalmente, se calcina el hidróxido
de aluminio a temperaturas cercanas a 1000 °C, para formar la alúmina.
Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3 H2O
La emisiones asociadas a esta actividad se recogen en la ficha “Producción de metales no férricos (alúmina, aluminio
secundario, cobre, plomo, zinc)-Combustión”.
2. La extracción del aluminio a partir de la alúmina mediante electrólisis:
El óxido de aluminio obtenido en la fase anterior tiene un punto de fusión muy alto (2000 °C) que hace imposible
someterlo a un proceso de electrolisis. Por ello se mezcla la alúmina con fluoruro de sodio (criolita), que actúa de
fundente, con lo cual la temperatura de fusión de esta mezcla se rebaja hasta 900 °C. A continuación, se somete al
proceso de electrólisis, sumergiendo en la cuba unos electrodos de carbono (tanto el ánodo como el cátodo). Al pasar la
corriente eléctrica continua a través de esta mezcla descompone la alúmina en oxígeno y en aluminio; el metal fundido
se deposita en el polo negativo (cátodo) del fondo de la cuba, mientras que el oxígeno se acumula en los electrodos de
carbono (ánodo). Parte del carbono que está en el baño se quema por la acción del oxígeno, transformándose en
dióxido de carbono. El aluminio así obtenido tiene un pureza del 99,5 % al 99,9 %, siendo las impurezas de hierro y silicio
principalmente. De las cubas pasa al horno, donde es purificado mediante la adición de un fundente o se alea con otros
metales, con objeto de obtener materiales con propiedades específicas. Después se vierte en moldes o se hacen lingotes
o chapas.
Para producir una tonelada de aluminio se necesitan cuatro toneladas de bauxita, que darán dos toneladas de alúmina,
de las cuales, mediante electrólisis, se obtendrá una tonelada de aluminio.
Figura 1. Fases en la producción del aluminio primario (Fuente: Elaboración propia)
2. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-2-
Las cubas empleadas en el proceso de electrolisis pueden ser de dos tipos: cubas Söderberg o cubas de ánodos
precocidos.
Cubas Söderberg:
El ánodo de cada cuba está formado por un único bloque, en estado de semifusión, de pasta Söderberg, cuya
composición aproximada es 70 por 100 de carbón (coque) y 30 por 100 de brea. Este bloque, conforme se va
quemando con el oxígeno desprendido, se reconstituye alimentándolo por su parte superior con la misma
pasta, sólida y troceada, que generalmente se produce en las mismas instalaciones de la fábrica.
Cubas de ánodos precocidos:
Los ánodos precocidos están formados, en cada cuba, por varios bloques anódicos, cuya pasta original (pasta
"cruda") está formada por carbón y brea en proporciones del orden del 85 por 100 y 15 por 100,
respectivamente. El bloque de pasta cruda se compacta por prensado o vibración en un molde y, seguidamente,
se introduce en un horno donde se realiza la cocción en un ciclo calentamiento-enfriamiento que dura
aproximadamente tres semanas, a temperaturas máximas próximas a los 1.200 ˚C, durante el cual tiene lugar la
coquificación de la brea, ardiendo los productos volátiles y dando como resultado un bloque "cocido" con las
adecuadas propiedades mecánicas, buena conductividad eléctrica y baja reactividad.
Finalmente, solo resta dotar al bloque cocido de un vástago metálico, que servirá de soporte para suspenderlo
sobre la cuba, a la altura apropiada para que quede introducido en el baño de alúmina y criolita a la debida
distancia del cátodo.
La distancia entre cátodos y ánodos se mantiene regulada automáticamente en la misma medida en que estos se van
consumiendo, proceso que dura aproximadamente cuatro semanas, en cuyo momento se retiran, reciclándose los
desechos en la fabricación de la pasta, mientras que los hierros de sujeción de los vástagos, tras ser sometidos a
eventuales reparaciones, se usan repetidamente. En las modernas fábricas de aluminio que utilizan ánodos precocidos
suele realizarse totalmente el proceso completo de fabricación de los ánodos en instalaciones apropiadas, disponiendo
de los correspondientes medios de almacenaje y manutención de las materias primas, formación, cocción y sellado de
los bloques y recuperación de desechos.
No ocurre así con los cátodos, cuya larga duración hace que no resulte rentable disponer en las fábricas de aluminio de
las instalaciones al efecto, realizándose generalmente tan sólo la operación del sellado.
La principal reacción simplificada o global que tiene lugar en las cubas a la temperatura de funcionamiento es:
2 AI2O3 + 3 C → 3 CO2 + 4 AI
Durante el curso de la electrólisis, cuando los niveles de alúmina son bajos (a niveles del 1,5% a 2% en masa), se produce
un fenómeno conocido como efecto ánodo, responsable de emisiones de PFC. Cuando las sales fundidas de los fluoruros,
que se encuentran a elevada temperatura, se combinan con el carbono del ánodo tiene lugar una reacción forzada que
favorece la formación de CF4 y C2F6. Este fenómeno tiene lugar debido a que, durante el efecto ánodo, la tensión
eléctrica se eleva por encima del nivel requerido por la Ley de Gibbs para la formación de estos gases (desde 4-5 voltios,
hasta los 20-50 voltios). El proceso ocurre muy rápidamente y, en teoría, se debe a un rápido incremento en la
resistencia eléctrica a través de la interfaz ánodo-baño. Como resultado, la tensión eléctrica se eleva, permitiendo el
paso de la corriente a pesar de la alta resistencia eléctrica. En ese momento empiezan una serie de reacciones que
compiten entre sí y que producen, entre otros compuestos además del CF4 y del C2F6, CO2, CO y fluoruros. Parece ser
que durante el efecto ánodo los gases cubren completamente los ánodos de carbono. Las dos reacciones de interés en
este proceso son las siguientes:
Na3AlF6 + 3/4C = Al + 3NaF + 3/4CF4
Na3AlF6 + C = Al + 3NaF + 1/2C2F6
El efecto ánodo suele ocurrir entre 0,3 y 3 veces por día en una cuba determinada y suele durar de 2 a 20 minutos.
A continuación se presenta un esquema que ilustra el proceso productivo completo del aluminio primario:
3. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-3-
Figura 2. Producción del aluminio primario (Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de Guía Tecnológica Metalurgia del Aluminio-PRTR y EMEP/EEA 2019)
Proceso obtención aluminio secundario
La producción de aluminio secundario o reciclaje de aluminio es el conjunto de procesos que permiten utilizar de nuevo el
aluminio al final de su vida útil. El proceso se basa en refundir el metal, lo que reduce enormemente los costes de producción, ya
que requiere cantidades de energía mucho menores que las empleadas en la ruta primaria. Se estima que el consumo energético
en las operaciones de refino del aluminio secundario es, aproximadamente, el 5% de la requerida para la producción primaria de
aluminio, reduciéndose significativamente las emisiones de dióxido de carbono.
En la mayoría de los casos el primer paso consiste en la eliminación del magnesio que pudiera haber en la chatarra que entra
como materia prima, con el fin de evitar la degradación del producto obtenido en las operaciones de moldeo. Se estima que la
chatarra puede contener hasta un 1% de magnesio, por lo que se necesita reducirlo hasta el 0,1%.
Tras el pretratamiento realizado a la chatarra se procede a la fusión. Destacan dos procesos diferenciados claramente según el
tipo de horno empleado (rotativos y otros). La diferencia entre ambos radica en el empleo o no de sales fundentes para la fusión
de las chatarras. Mediante el empleo de sales se obtiene un mayor grado de recuperación del aluminio, ya que estas disminuyen
el grado de oxidación del metal durante la fusión (las sales forman una capa fundida sobre el aluminio y ayudan a prevenir la
oxidación), con el consecuente aumento de la producción de escorias salinas.
Aeronaves, automóviles, bicicletas, botes, material de menaje, cables, etc., son típicamente reciclados. Habitualmente disponen
de pinturas, lacados, recubrimientos, grasas, etc., que es necesario limpiar antes de introducir en el horno de refusión para evitar
problemas.
El esquema general de la producción de aluminio secundario se resume en el siguiente diagrama de proceso:
4. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-4-
Figura 3. Producción del aluminio secundario (Fuente: Elaboración propia a partir de Guía Tecnológica Metalurgia del Aluminio-PRTR y EMEP/EEA 2019)
La emisiones asociadas a las actividades de combustión se recogen en la ficha “Producción de metales no férricos (alúmina,
aluminio secundario, cobre, plomo, zinc)-Combustión”.
Contaminantes inventariados
Gases de efecto invernadero
CO2 CH4 N2O HFCs PFCs SF6
NA NA NA NA
OBSERVACIONES:
Notation Keys correspondientes al último reporte a UNFCCC
Contaminantes atmosféricos
Contaminantes principales Material particulado Otros
Metales pesados
prioritarios
Metales pesados
adicionales
Contaminantes orgánicos
persistentes
NOx NMVOC SO2 NH3 PM2.5 PM10 TSP BC CO Pb Cd Hg As Cr Cu Ni Se Zn DIOX PAH HCB PCB
NA NE NE NE NE NE NE NE NE NE NE NA NA
OBSERVACIONES:
Notation Keys correspondientes al último reporte a CLRTAP
5. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-5-
Sectores del Inventario vinculados
Las actividades del Inventario relacionadas con la presente ficha metodológica son las siguientes:
RELACIÓN CON OTRAS FICHAS METODOLÓGICAS
ACTIVIDAD SNAP ACTIVIDAD
CRF
ACTIVIDAD
NFR
DESCRIPCIÓN
03.01.02/03 1A2b 1A2b “Combustión estacionaria industrial no específica”
03.02.05 1A2b 1A2b “Combustión en otros hornos sin contacto”
03.03.04/05/06/07/08/09/10/22/26 1A2b 1A2b “Producción de metales no férricos (alúmina, aluminio secundario, cobre,
plomo, zinc)-Combustión”.
Descripción metodológica general
Contaminante Tier Fuente Descripción
Aluminio primario
CO2 T2 Guía IPCC 2006 (Vol.3, cap. 4, epíg. 4.4.2.1)
Balance de masas aplicando las ecuaciones propuestas en la Guía
IPCC 2006 según el proceso empleado:
- Ánodos precocidos: ecuaciones 4.21, 4.22 y 4.23
- Celdas Sörderberg: ecuación 4.24
PFCS T2 Guía IPCC 2006 (Vol.3, cap. 4, epíg. 4.4.2.3)
Estimaciones basadas en el rendimiento del efecto anódico:
- Método de la pendiente: ecuación 4.26
NOx T2 Guía EMEP 2019 (Cap. 2C3, tablas 3.2 y 3.3)
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de
aluminio primario
CO T2 Guía EMEP 2019 (Cap. 2C3, tablas 3.2 y 3.3)
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de
aluminio primario
SO2 T3 IQ Emisiones medidas
TSP T3 IQ Emisiones medidas
PM10, PM2,5 T2 Guías CEPMEIP
Aplicación, sobre las emisiones de TSP, de la ratio propuesta por
CEPMEIP de relación entre emisiones de TSP con respecto a PM10 y
PM2,5
BC T2 Guía EMEP 2019 (Cap. 2C3, tablas 3.2 y 3.3)
Aplicación, sobre las emisiones de PM2,5, de la ratio propuesta por
EMEP 2016 de relación entre emisiones de BC con respecto a PM2,5
PAH T2 Guía EMEP/CORINAIR 2016
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de
aluminio primario
Aluminio secundario
TSP, PM10,
PM2,5, BC
T2 Guía EMEP 2019 (Cap. 2C3, tabla 3.4)
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de
aluminio secundario
DIOX T2 Guía EMEP 2019 (Cap. 2C3, tabla 3.4)
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de
aluminio secundario
Variable de actividad
Variable Descripción
Producción de aluminio Expresada en toneladas
Fuentes de información sobre la variable de actividad
Producción de aluminio primario
Periodo Fuente
1990-2018 Cuestionarios individualizados (IQ) facilitados por las plantas de producción de aluminio existentes en España
6. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-6-
En la actualidad existen en España 3 plantas producción de aluminio, una de las cuales es productora, a su vez, de alúmina. En la
siguiente figura se representa su ubicación.
Figura 4. Distribución de las plantas productoras de aluminio en España (Fuente: Elaboración propia)
Producción de aluminio secundario
Periodo Fuente
1990 Patronal del sector
1990-1999 SGIBP-MINER (Subdirección General de Industrias Básicas y de Proceso- Ministerio de Industria y Energía)
2000-2003 Asociación Española de Refinadores de Aluminio (ASERAL)
2004 Dirección General de Industria del MITYC (Ministerio de Industria, Comercio y Turismo)
2005-2006 Asociación Española de Refinadores de Aluminio (ASERAL)
2007 Dirección General de Industria del MITYC (Ministerio de Industria, Comercio y Turismo)
2008-2009 Asociación Española de Refinadores de Aluminio (ASERAL)
2010-2018 Encuesta Industrial de Productos del INE (Instituto Nacional de Estadística)
Fuente de los factores de emisión
Contaminante Tipo Fuente Descripción
Aluminio primario
CO2 CS
Guía IPCC 2006 (Vol.3,
cap. 4, epíg. 4.4.2.1)
Balance de masas aplicando las ecuaciones propuestas en la Guía IPCC 2006 según el
proceso empleado:
- Ánodos precocidos: ecuaciones 4.21, 4.22 y 4.23
- Celdas Sörderberg: ecuación 4.24
PFCS CS
Guía IPCC 2006 (Vol.3,
cap. 4, epíg. 4.4.2.3)
Estimaciones basadas en el rendimiento del efecto anódico:
- Método de la pendiente: ecuación 4.26
NOx D
Guía EMEP 2016 (Cap.
2C3, tablas 3.2 y 3.3)
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de aluminio
CO D
Guía EMEP 2016 (Cap.
2C3, tablas 3.2 y 3.3)
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de aluminio
SO2 CS IQ Emisiones medidas
TSP CS IQ Emisiones medidas
PM10, PM2,5 CS Guías CEPMEIP
Aplicación, sobre las emisiones de TSP, de la ratio propuesta por CEPMEIP de relación
entre emisiones de TSP con respecto a PM10 y PM2,5
BC D Guías CEPMEIP
Aplicación, sobre las emisiones de PM2,5, de la ratio propuesta por CEPMEIP de
relación entre emisiones de BC con respecto a PM2,5
PAH D
Guía EMEP/CORINAIR
2016
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de aluminio
Aluminio secundario
TSP, PM10,
PM2,5, BC
D
Guía EMEP 2019 (Cap.
2C3, tabla 3.4)
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de aluminio
DIOX D
Guía EMEP 2019 (Cap.
2C3, tabla 3.4)
Aplicación de un factor de emisión por defecto a la producción de aluminio
Observaciones: D: por defecto (del inglés “Default”); CS: específico del país (del inglés “Country Specific”); OTH: otros (del inglés
“Other”); M: modelo (del inglés “Model”); IQ: cuestionario individualizado de las plantas
Empresa Nombre Provincia Observaciones
ALCOA
Fábrica de
Avilés
Asturias Producción de aluminio
Fábrica de La
Coruña
Galicia Producción de aluminio
Fábrica de San
Ciprián (Lugo)
Galicia
Producción de aluminio
Producción de alúmina
7. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-7-
Incertidumbres
La incertidumbre de esta actividad a nivel de CRF 2C3 es la recogida en la siguiente tabla.
Contaminante
Inc. VA
(%)
Inc. FE
(%)
Descripción
CO2 2 5
Variable de actividad: se sitúa en un 2%, al tratarse de información directa de las plantas
Factor de emisión: Se sitúa en el 5%. Incertidumbre obtenida a partir de los límites superior e inferior del
intervalo de confianza del 95% establecido por la Guía IPCC 2006 en el volumen 2, capítulo 4, tablas 4.11 y 4.14
PFC 1 9
Variable de actividad: se sitúa en un 1%, al tratarse de información directa de plantas
Factor de emisión: se sitúa en el 9%. Estimación deducida al ponderar las incertidumbres que por tecnología y
contaminante aparecen indicadas en la tabla 4.16 de las Guías IPCC 2006
La incertidumbre de esta actividad a nivel de NFR 2C1 es la recogida en la siguiente tabla.
Contaminante
Inc.
VA
(%)
Inc.
FE
(%)
Descripción
SO2 2 20
Variable de actividad: se sitúa en un 2%, al tratarse de información directa de las plantas.
Factor de emisión: incertidumbre obtenida a partir de los límites superior e inferior del intervalo de confianza del
95% establecido por la Guía EMEP 2016 en el capítulo 2C3, tablas 3.2 y 3.3
NOx - -
No estimada. El Inventario contempla en su estimación de incertidumbre total, aquellos sectores que más emiten
hasta completar el 97% de las emisiones totales, quedando esta actividad y contaminantes fuera del cómputo.
Para más información consultar la metodología para el cálculo de incertidumbres del reporte a CRLTAP
CO - -
Para estos contaminantes no se realizan análisis de incertidumbre. Para más información consultar la metodología
para el cálculo de incertidumbres del reporte CRLTAP
TSP, PM10,
PM2,5, BC
- -
Metales
pesados
- -
PAH - -
DIOX - -
Coherencia temporal de la series
Las series de las variables se consideran temporalmente homogéneas y son completas.
Observaciones
No procede.
Criterio para la distribución espacial de las emisiones
La información procede de distintas fuentes. En el caso del aluminio primario se recibe la información a nivel de planta, por lo
que las emisiones se asignan directamente a la provincia en la que se ubica cada planta.
En el caso del aluminio secundario la información ha sido tratada al nivel de área. No se dispone sin embargo de información
contrastada sobre la distribución provincial para esta actividad, por lo que se ha realizado una distribución aproximada entre las
provincias en las cuales se tiene certeza de la realización de esta actividad. La información sobre la que se ha basado esta
distribución está referida al año 1990.
Juicio de experto asociado
No procede.
Fecha de actualización
Junio 2020.
8. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-8-
ANEXO I
Datos de la variable de actividad
Se muestran los datos de variable de actividad correspondientes al aluminio secundario. Los relativos al aluminio primario no se
publican por razones de confidencialidad.
Año
Producción de aluminio secundario
(toneladas)
1990 86.700
1991 96.000
1992 96.500
1993 99.717
1994 103.508
1995 106.975
1996 153.837
1997 173.181
1998 210.000
1999 224.006
2000 240.520
2001 221.720
2002 242.600
2003 260.984
2004 290.030
2005 310.170
2006 335.160
2007 345.120
2008 319.730
2009 218.610
2010 281.201
2011 371.883
2012 352.056
2013 356.921
2014 411.648
2015 378.775
2016 401.743
2017 417.527
2018 399.533
9. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-9-
ANEXO II
Datos de factores de emisión
Se muestran los factores de emisión correspondientes a la producción de aluminio secundario. Los relativos al aluminio primario
no se muestran por razones de confidencialidad.
TSP PM10 PM2,5 BC DIOX
g/t alum.sec g/t alum.sec g/t alum.sec. g/t alum.sec ng/t alum.sec.
2.000 1.400 550 0,0127 35.000
EMEP/EEA 2019, Capítulo 2C3, Tabla 3-4
10. Sistema Español de Inventario de Emisiones
Metodologías de estimación de emisiones
-10-
ANEXO III
Cálculo de emisiones
Las emisiones relativas a la producción de aluminio secundario se obtienen multiplicando los factores de emisión indicados en el
anexo II por la producción de aluminio secundario en cada año, según la ecuación:
𝑬(𝑖) = 𝑽𝑨 ∗ 𝑭𝑬
E (i) = VA x FE
Siendo:
E =Emisiones (t)
i = Contaminante
VA = Variable de actividad: (t aluminio secundario)
FE = Factor de emisión: (g/t aluminio secundario)
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑒 𝑇𝑆𝑃 2018 (𝑡) = 399.533 ∗
2000
106
= 799