Evolutionary medicine helps explain many mysteries of the human body by considering how our bodies have evolved in response to environmental pressures. It provides insight into why we are vulnerable to diseases and medical issues. For example, it explains why early reproduction occurs even if it leads to lower birth weight offspring, as this represents an evolutionary trade-off. The document also discusses how the battle between mother and fetus for glucose and the hygiene hypothesis help explain medical issues. Overall, evolutionary medicine combined with modern medicine can help discover new treatment options and improve current ones.
Genetic polymorphism and It's Applicationsawaismalik78
Genetic polymorphism
Genetic polymorphism is the inheritance of a trait controlled by a single genetic locus with two alleles, in which the least common allele has a frequency of about 1% or greater. Genetic polymorphism is a difference in DNA sequence among individuals, groups, or populations.
Types of polymorphisms
Protein/enzyme polymorphisms
In the early days of human genetics, majority of polymorphisms were those associated with proteins and enzymes. To detect the polymorphism and a person’s genotype, one performed assays for the gene product, i.e., the protein or enzyme produced by the genetic blueprint.
DNA polymorphisms
The large class of polymorphisms are those that detect Slight variations at the level of DNA nucleotides.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms
A single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP is a sequence of DNA on which humans vary by one and only one nucleotide . Because humans differ by one nucleotide per every thousand or so nucleotides, there are millions of SNPs scattered throughout the human genome.
Tandem repeat polymorphisms
A tandem repeat polymorphism consists of a series of nucleotides that are repeated in tandem (i.e., one time after another). The polymorphism consists of the number of repeats.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a type in which organisms may be differentiated by analysis of patterns derived from cleavage of their DNA. If two organisms differ in the distance between sites of cleavage of a particular restriction endonuclease, the length of the fragments produced will differ when the DNA is digested with a restriction enzyme.
Applications of Genetic Polymorphism
The study of polymorphism has many uses in medicine, biological research, and law enforcement. Genetic diseases may be caused by a specific polymorphism. Scientists can look for these polymorphisms to determine if a person will develop the disease, or risks passing it on to his or her children.
Genetic polymorphism and It's Applicationsawaismalik78
Genetic polymorphism
Genetic polymorphism is the inheritance of a trait controlled by a single genetic locus with two alleles, in which the least common allele has a frequency of about 1% or greater. Genetic polymorphism is a difference in DNA sequence among individuals, groups, or populations.
Types of polymorphisms
Protein/enzyme polymorphisms
In the early days of human genetics, majority of polymorphisms were those associated with proteins and enzymes. To detect the polymorphism and a person’s genotype, one performed assays for the gene product, i.e., the protein or enzyme produced by the genetic blueprint.
DNA polymorphisms
The large class of polymorphisms are those that detect Slight variations at the level of DNA nucleotides.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms
A single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP is a sequence of DNA on which humans vary by one and only one nucleotide . Because humans differ by one nucleotide per every thousand or so nucleotides, there are millions of SNPs scattered throughout the human genome.
Tandem repeat polymorphisms
A tandem repeat polymorphism consists of a series of nucleotides that are repeated in tandem (i.e., one time after another). The polymorphism consists of the number of repeats.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a type in which organisms may be differentiated by analysis of patterns derived from cleavage of their DNA. If two organisms differ in the distance between sites of cleavage of a particular restriction endonuclease, the length of the fragments produced will differ when the DNA is digested with a restriction enzyme.
Applications of Genetic Polymorphism
The study of polymorphism has many uses in medicine, biological research, and law enforcement. Genetic diseases may be caused by a specific polymorphism. Scientists can look for these polymorphisms to determine if a person will develop the disease, or risks passing it on to his or her children.
Development of the Tetrapod Limb
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Genetic and environmental factors are the two keys that make human phenotype variations. When the genomic DNA sequences on equivalent chromosomes of any two individuals are compared, there is substantial variation in the sequence at many points throughout the genome. The term polymorphism was originally used to describe variations in shape and form that distinguish normal individuals within a species from each other. These days, geneticists use the term genetic polymorphisms to describe the inter-individual, functionally silent differences in DNA sequence that make each human genome unique. In order to better understand the phenomenon of genetic polymorphism, an emphasis has been laid on the structures and functions of nucleotides, genes and nucleic acids, including their relationship with polymorphism.
Polymorphism can be caused by factors such as mutation, which is defined as a permanent transmissible change in DNA sequence. Mutations are classified based on where they occur somatic and germ line mutations) and the length of the nucleotide sequences they affect (gene-level and chromosomal mutations). The various types of polymorphisms include; single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), small-scale insertions/deletions, polymorphic repetitive elements, microsatellite variation and haplotypes.
Variations in DNA sequences may have a major impact on how human beings respond to disease, bacteria, viruses, toxins, chemicals, drugs, and other therapies. Many clinical phenotypes observed in diseases seem to have considerable genetic components.
Determining genetic polymorphism can be based on morphological, biochemical, and molecular types of information. However, molecular markers have advantages over other kinds, where they show genetic differences on a more detailed level without interferences from environmental factors, and where they involve techniques that provide fast results detailing genetic diversity. Some of the techniques used in studying polymorphisms include; PCR based techniques and techniques involving DNA based markers.
Key words: Genetic polymorphism, effects in a population,
Welcome to the world of Homeotic genes. In this presentation I talk about the interesting history behind homeotic genes as to how it was discovered. Also, the various deformities in Drosophila related to mutations in homeotic genes and the characteristics of homeotic genes. I also talk about hox genes in humans and their function.
The term 'segmentation gene' is a classification given to a broad class of genes that are further subdivided into three smaller classes of genes. Within the segmentation gene group, there are gap genes, pair-rule genes and segment polarity genes. They control development in this order.
Development of the Tetrapod Limb
WEL COME TO LOVYANSH LIFESCIENCE
I HAVE EXPLAIN THIS TOPIC IN DETAILS ON YOUTUBE
MY YOUTUBE CHANNEL LINK
https://youtu.be/o1h68DJ8vCg
PLEASE SHARE , LIKE
& COMMENTS FOR MORE SUCH VIDEOS
Genetic and environmental factors are the two keys that make human phenotype variations. When the genomic DNA sequences on equivalent chromosomes of any two individuals are compared, there is substantial variation in the sequence at many points throughout the genome. The term polymorphism was originally used to describe variations in shape and form that distinguish normal individuals within a species from each other. These days, geneticists use the term genetic polymorphisms to describe the inter-individual, functionally silent differences in DNA sequence that make each human genome unique. In order to better understand the phenomenon of genetic polymorphism, an emphasis has been laid on the structures and functions of nucleotides, genes and nucleic acids, including their relationship with polymorphism.
Polymorphism can be caused by factors such as mutation, which is defined as a permanent transmissible change in DNA sequence. Mutations are classified based on where they occur somatic and germ line mutations) and the length of the nucleotide sequences they affect (gene-level and chromosomal mutations). The various types of polymorphisms include; single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), small-scale insertions/deletions, polymorphic repetitive elements, microsatellite variation and haplotypes.
Variations in DNA sequences may have a major impact on how human beings respond to disease, bacteria, viruses, toxins, chemicals, drugs, and other therapies. Many clinical phenotypes observed in diseases seem to have considerable genetic components.
Determining genetic polymorphism can be based on morphological, biochemical, and molecular types of information. However, molecular markers have advantages over other kinds, where they show genetic differences on a more detailed level without interferences from environmental factors, and where they involve techniques that provide fast results detailing genetic diversity. Some of the techniques used in studying polymorphisms include; PCR based techniques and techniques involving DNA based markers.
Key words: Genetic polymorphism, effects in a population,
Welcome to the world of Homeotic genes. In this presentation I talk about the interesting history behind homeotic genes as to how it was discovered. Also, the various deformities in Drosophila related to mutations in homeotic genes and the characteristics of homeotic genes. I also talk about hox genes in humans and their function.
The term 'segmentation gene' is a classification given to a broad class of genes that are further subdivided into three smaller classes of genes. Within the segmentation gene group, there are gap genes, pair-rule genes and segment polarity genes. They control development in this order.
Running head IMMUNIZATION1IMMUNIZATION2IMMUNIZATION.docxcowinhelen
Running head: IMMUNIZATION
1
IMMUNIZATION
2
IMMUNIZATION
3
Immunization
Mary Jones
IHP-610-X3562 Health Policy and Law
Southern New Hampshire University
01/29/2017
Immunization
This is the process through which a person is made resistant to a certain disease typically by administering a vaccine. This is done in a controlled way so that the body is not put at the risk of contracting the said disease. The process helps the body’s immune system fight of the disease by providing the body's immune system with the skills for handling a certain attack so that, should the same disease attack the body in the future the body's immune system will have the skills to respond appropriately. Exposing the body immune system to a certain disease during immunization helps the body retain the skills/abilities through immunological memory that it can use in the future (Pickering, 2012).
There are different elements of the immune system involved in this process. This is what the immunization improves as a way to ready them for a possible future attack. They include the T cells, B cells, and the B cell antibodies produced. The memory T and B cells are tasked with the quick recovery in the case of a second attack of the same disease.
Forms of Immunization
Active immunization
This happens when one comes naturally into contact with a microbe; the body then takes measures to protect its self, by producing antibodies and other forms of defense systems against this microbe (Tunkel, 2008). When this microbe attacks in the future the body will be ready with the steps it took within the first time it got attacked to eliminate the microbe even faster than before
Passive Immunization
This is the introduction of pre-synthesized elements into the body; these elements are already capable of dealing with a particular foreign element such that the body does not need to produce anything so as to fight the disease in question. Antibodies are the most widely used for passive immunization. Passive immunization produces fast results as the body receives antibodies and only has to apply them to attack a certain disease. The disadvantage of this, however, is that these results are not long lasting. This is because the antibodies used are quickly broken down by the host's body and since the body didn't get to learn how to make more their advantage end the moment the antibodies are gone.
A good example of passive immunization is the transfer of antibodies from mother to fetus during pregnancy. This help protects the fetus from foreign molecules before and shortly after birth. Other examples include harvesting antibodies from animals that were first injected with snake venom to make their bodies produce antibodies that can eliminate the effects of the snake venom, then get these antibodies into the body of a snake bite victim. These transfer of antibodies help the snake bite victim heal from the snake bite but these healing properties end as soon as the body breaks dow ...
THEORETICAL CONCEPT The Health Belief Model (HBM) is by far the mo.docxchristalgrieg
THEORETICAL CONCEPT The Health Belief Model (HBM) is by far the most commonly used theory in health education and health promotion (Glanz, Rimer, & Viswanath, 2008; National Cancer Institute [NCI], 2005). The underlying concept of the HBM is that health behavior is determined by personal beliefs or perceptions about a disease and the strategies available to decrease its occurrence (Hochbaum, 1958). Personal perception is influenced by the whole range of intrapersonal factors affecting health behavior, including, but not limited to: knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, experiences, skills, culture, and religion.
THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTS
The following four perceptions serve as the main constructs of the model: perceived seriousness, perceived susceptibility, perceived benefits, and perceived barriers. Each of these perceptions, individually or in combination, can be used to explain health behavior. More recently, other constructs have been added to the HBM; thus, the model has been expanded to include cues to action, motivating factors, and self-efficacy. PERCEIVED SERIOUSNESS The construct of perceived seriousness speaks to an individual’s belief about the seriousness or severity of a disease. While the perception of seriousness is often based on medical information or knowledge, it may also come from beliefs a person has about the consequences an illness might have on him or her personally. For example, most of us perceive seasonal flu as a relatively minor ailment. We get it, stay home a few days, and get better. However, if you have asthma, contracting the flu could land you in the hospital. In this case, your perception of the flu might be that it is a serious disease. Or, if you are self-employed, having the flu might mean a week or more of lost wages. Again, this would influence your perception of the seriousness of this illness. Perception of seriousness can also be colored by past experience with the illness. No doubt, most people would consider skin cancer a serious disease. However, the perception of serious might be diminished in someone who had a cancerous lesion removed and recovered without much more than a sore area and a Band-Aid for a few days.
PERCEIVED SUSCEPTIBILITY
Personal risk or susceptibility is one of the more powerful perceptions in prompting people to adopt healthier behaviors. The greater the perceived risk, the greater the likelihood of engaging in behaviors to decrease the risk. This is what prompts men who have sex with men to be vaccinated against hepatitis B (de Wit, Vet, Schutten, & van Steenbergen, 2005) and to use condoms in an effort to decrease susceptibility to HIV infection (Belcher, Sternberg, Wolotski, Halkitis, & Hoff, 2005). Perceived susceptibility motivates people to be vaccinated for influenza (Chen, Fox, Cantrell, Stockdale, & Kagawa-Singer, 2007) to use sunscreen to prevent skin cancer, and to floss their teeth to prevent gum disease and tooth loss (Figure 4– 1). It is only logical that when peop ...
Feature story from the Garvan Institute of Medical Research's April 2012 issue of Breakthrough newsletter. More at https://www.garvan.org.au/news-events/newsletters
Environmental stimulus effect our health more than genetics. Epigentics is the control above the genes that determines why one person reacts one way while another person reacts differently to environmental stimulus.
Kevin Hugins research paper.
Meriam-Webster defines endocrinology as “a branch of medicine concerned with the structure, function, and disorders of the endocrine glands.” When considering the human endocrine system, most people think of endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary, gonads, adrenals, and pancreas. No one would deny that hormones released from endocrine glands have a powerful effect on cell function throughout the human body. A relatively new field of study called Microbial Endocrinology suggests that the interactions and effects of the human endocrine system involve more organisms than just the human.
2. Evolutionary medicine helps people understand how the human body has developed to
become extremely sophisticated, yet vulnerable to a multitude of negative forces. Evolutionary
medicine takes the large number of mysterious flaws humans have developed and turns them
into questions that can be answered and explained (2008, Nesse, Stearns). The foundation of
evolutionary medicine is thru findings that diseases need both a proximate answer to
mechanisms and an evolutionary answer to why these mechanisms have evolved and left the
human body vulnerable (2008, Nesse, Stears). From maternal-fetal interactions such the battle
over glucose, to chronic inflammatory disease and allergies; evolutionary medicine can bolster
our understandings gained from modern medicine and help to develop new treatment options
never thought possible without an evolutionary understanding.
Human reproduction is a complicated system with many questions that cannot be
answered by modern medicine alone. One complicated question that has an evolutionary
perspective is the occurrence of low birth weight babies and maternal age at menarche. Studies
have found that low birth weight offspring are correlated with mothers who underwent early
menarche (2003, Coall et al). Studies have also linked early menarche with psychosocial stress
early in development, such as father absence, family conflict and major life events. So the
questions begs, why if early menarche occurs under psychosocial stress and leads to low birth
weight offspring have women evolved this occurrence? It would make more sense to hold off
sexual maturity until the mother can ensure a healthier offspring with higher chances of
survival. The answer is a simple evolutionary trade-off. When the mother is under psychosocial
stress she undergoes early menarche in order to undergo early reproduction to minimize the
chance of losing her lineage (2003, Coall et al). This leads to a strategy of early reproduction at
3. the cost of the offspring in order to ensure the chance of one reaching sexual maturity and
reproducing.
Another oddity of human reproduction is the ever-going battle between the mother and
fetus during gestation. The mother tries to balance the successful birth of her present fetus
with future siblings, which leads to withholding of resources in order to increase her fitness in
the future. The fetus, however, is fully invested in survival and tries to maximize its resources
even at the cost of the mothers fitness (2003, Coall et al). One example of this is the battle for
glucose between the mother and fetus. The developing fetus will secrete human placental
lactogen (hpl) which blocks the mothers insulin and increases blood glucose (1997, Nesse,
Williams). If the mother does not have enough insulin to counteract the Hpl then the mother
will develop gestational diabetes, and could possibly be fatal to both the mother and fetus
(1997, Nesse, Williams). So the question is asked, if the fetal increase in Hpl secretion can lead
to death then why does it occur? The answer is yet another trade-off that humans have
evolved. The fetus needs a large magnitude of glucose to develop so it must risk the chance of
killing its mother in order to have a chance to fully develop and mature sexually in order to
reproduce later in life.
The immune system is a magnificently developed systemthat can fight off an enormous
amount of infections, but is not perfect and still leaves us vulnerable to itself and outside
forces. Evolutionary medicine can help to explain these shortcomings of our immunity and also
give us new treatment options. The occurrence of chronic inflammatory disease, allergies and
autoimmunity has been a mystery to medical researchers. Evolutionary medicine has begun to
4. help explain the occurrences of these diseases, which have lead to treatments that would have
never come to light through modern medicine alone. Researchers have found an increase in
prevalence of these diseases in developed countries compared to undeveloped ones. The
“Hygiene Hypothesis” suggests these occurrences are related to a decrease in exposure to
pathogens that were a part of our evolutionary history (2007, Rook). Two of these pathogens
are the harmless pathogens associated with untreated water and the helminth worm which are
still common in developing countries. Studies have found that these pathogens become a part
of the micro flora of mammals once exposed and help in the maturation of dendrtic cells and T-
cells (2007, Rook). In the absence of the pathogens the immune system does not develop as
many regulatory cells and in turn leads to allergies, autoimmunity and chronic inflammatory
diseases. One example of this was found in looking at people suffering from multiple sclerosis
(MS) in Argentina (2007, Rook). MS is an autoimmune disease in which the body’s own immune
system attacks and destroys the myelin basic protein of the central nervous systemdrastically
decreasing the speed of an action potential between the synapses between nerves. The
patients were followed up on for 4.6 years and it was found that the patients with parasitic
infections had far fewer inflammatory attacks on the myelin than those who were not infected
with a parasite (2007, Rook). This simple concept of humans in developed countries not being
exposed to “old friends” such as the helminth worm and thus have more allergies and
inflammatory disease may have never been tested without an evolutionary approach to the
dilemma.
5. Evolutionary medicine along with modern medicine can help in disease treatment
options and also make us think twice before prescribing a certain medication. One example of
this is the discovery and mass use of antibiotics beginning in the 1940s. Most antibiotics are
derivatives of naturally occurring substances in micro-organisms that have evolved as defenses
against other organisms (2009, Gluckman et al). When the antibiotics are applied to bacteria
the bacteria quickly evolve resistance to it through random mutations that occur because of
their large populations and fast regeneration times. Antibiotic resistance can occur in as little as
two to four years after exposure (2009, Gluckman et al). When this occurs, the new bacterial
strain is even more deadly than before. Therefore evolutionary medicine can help to curtail
medical treatments and make you think twice before taking that azithromycin pack when you
have an infection in order to let you immune systemfight it off without the development of an
antibiotic resistant strain.
The field of evolutionary medicine can help to explain the existence of numerous
diseases and shortcomings of the human body. The amalgamation of modern medicine with
evolutionary medicine will help researchers to discover new treatment options for diseases,
explain why diseases occur and curtail treatment for better results. According to Stearns and
Ebert, evolutionary medicine can “shed new light on the evolution of virulence, of antibiotic
resistance, of oocytic atresia, of menopause, of the timing of the expression of genetic disease,
of links between mate choice and disease resistance, and of genomic conflict between mother
and fetus over resource provisioning” leading to numerous new insights that would have never
came to light without an evolutionary perspective (2001, Stearns, Ebert).
6. Work Cited
Coall D, Chisholm J (2003) Evolutionary Perspectives on Pregnancy: Maternal Age at Menarche
and Infant Birth Weight. Social Science and Medicine. 57: 1771-1781
Ebert, Sterns (2001) Evolution in Health and Disease: A Work in Progress. Department of
Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University. 76: 416-432
Gluckman P, Beedle A, Hanson M (2009) Principles of Evolutionary Medicine. New York, NY:
Oxford Press
Nesse R, Stearns S, (2008) The Great Opportunity: Evolutionary Applications to Medicine and
Public Health. Evolutionary Applications. 28-48
Nesse R, Williams G (1996). Why We Get Sick. New York, NY: Vintage Books
Rook G (2007) The Hygiene Hypothesis and the Increasing Prevalence of Chronic Inflammatory
Disorders. Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 101: 1072-1074
