This document reviews literature on the impact of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). It finds that ACEs are linked to negative health outcomes later in life through their effects on stress response systems and brain development. ACEs are common, affecting up to 67% of the population, and disproportionately impact low-income communities. The impacts of ACEs are cyclical as they increase risks for future generations. While ACEs have lasting biological and behavioral effects, perception of stress may influence outcomes. More research is needed to understand impacts, develop treatments, and engage communities to address this major public health issue.
Young girls in developed countries are primarily affected with eating disorders. Persons with anorexia are honest, do not disobey, and hide their inner feeling, tend to be good in whatever they do and often excellent athletes. Research says that anorexia people eat less to gain a sense of control over their lives.
Young girls in developed countries are primarily affected with eating disorders. Persons with anorexia are honest, do not disobey, and hide their inner feeling, tend to be good in whatever they do and often excellent athletes. Research says that anorexia people eat less to gain a sense of control over their lives.
?A landmark study and the many since that have supported the initial results have led to a growing consensus on the need for policies and practices to prevent, intervene, and promote healing" #AdverseChildhoodExperiences
Parent-infant interactions in families with women diagnosed with postnatal depression: a longitudinal study on the effects of a psychodynamic treatment
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Freijy - ASBHM - Do interventions based on cognitive dissonance promote healt...Emily Kothe
Freijy, T., & Kothe, E., (2013). Do interventions based on cognitive dissonance promote health behaviour?. Paper presented at the Australasian Society of Behavioural Health and Medicine (ASBHM) 10th Annual Proceedings, Newcastle, Australia
DSM proposal for Sensory Processing Disorder. Of interest to those who want to know more in general, or know more about SPD as it compares to ASD or Misophonia.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome Symptoms of may vary for each individual, but there are natural treatments or home remedies available to manage Irritable bowel syndrome or IBS at Gasrelief.
?A landmark study and the many since that have supported the initial results have led to a growing consensus on the need for policies and practices to prevent, intervene, and promote healing" #AdverseChildhoodExperiences
Parent-infant interactions in families with women diagnosed with postnatal depression: a longitudinal study on the effects of a psychodynamic treatment
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Freijy - ASBHM - Do interventions based on cognitive dissonance promote healt...Emily Kothe
Freijy, T., & Kothe, E., (2013). Do interventions based on cognitive dissonance promote health behaviour?. Paper presented at the Australasian Society of Behavioural Health and Medicine (ASBHM) 10th Annual Proceedings, Newcastle, Australia
DSM proposal for Sensory Processing Disorder. Of interest to those who want to know more in general, or know more about SPD as it compares to ASD or Misophonia.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome Symptoms of may vary for each individual, but there are natural treatments or home remedies available to manage Irritable bowel syndrome or IBS at Gasrelief.
· Your initial post should be at least 500 words, formatted and ci.docxVannaJoy20
· Your initial post should be at least 500 words, formatted and cited in current APA style with support from at least 2 academic sources. Your initial post is worth 8 points.
· You should respond to at least two of your peers by extending, refuting/correcting, or adding additional nuance to their posts. Your reply posts are worth 2 points (1 point per response.)
· All replies must be constructive and use literature where possible.
#1
Lisa Wright
St. Thomas University
NUR 417: Aging and End of Life
Yedelis Diaz
November 01, 2022
Pathological Conditions in Older Adults
As one goes through the natural aging process, the body's capacity to defend itself against infections diminishes. The immune system's ability to offer protection is reduced, and the individual becomes susceptible to conditions that affect them more than other age groups (Haynes, 2020). This population also experiences other symptoms impairing other aspects of their lives as time passes. For instance, their skin and bones lose their integrity and become more prone to abrasions and breakage. This assignment module will examine the pathological conditions that affect the sexual response in older adults and how and why nutritional and psychological factors, drugs, and other alternative and complementary medications affect the immune system of the populations.
Pathological Conditions that Affect Sexual Response in Older Adults
Sexuality is an essential aspect of life, irrespective of the age group one is in—the older population and the younger generation alike need to explore sexuality to maintain health and well-being. Exploring sexuality is also a mixture of biological, psychological, social, and religious factors, all of which have plenty to do with aging. Among the pathological conditions that affect sexual response in the elderly include
Genitourinary Syndrome of Menopause
These are the changes experienced in the genitourinary pathway as one age. The individual can feel a burning sensation, dryness, or irritation. This can lead to painful sexual encounters, which can, in turn, reduce their desire to engage and their response.
Dementia
This is a degenerative disorder of the mental faculties, predominantly among the elderly (National Institute on Aging, n.d.). Their judgment diminishes, making them disinterested or utterly unaware of their sexual experiences. Some forms of the condition have been shown to increase sex or closeness, but the individual may fail to recognize what is appropriate and what is not.
Diabetes
As a chronic condition experienced mainly by this population, it can lead to yeast generation, leading to itchiness around the sex organs, making sex unpalatable. The situation can, however, be addressed with medication.
Incontinence
This is a condition where one experiences bladder leakage caused by poor control (National Institute on Aging, n.d.). It is most prevalent among the population an.
ALCohoL ReSeARCh C u r r e n t R e v i e w s506 Alcohol .docxADDY50
ALCohoL ReSeARCh: C u r r e n t R e v i e w s
506 Alcohol Research: C u r r e n t R e v i e w s
Resilience to Meet the
Challenge of Addiction
Psychobiology and Clinical Considerations
Tanja N. Alim, M.D.; William B. Lawson, M.D.; Adriana Feder, M.D.; Brian M.
Iacoviello, Ph.D.; Shireen Saxena, M.S.; Christopher R. Bailey; Allison M.
Greene, M.S.; and Alexander Neumeister, M.D.
Tanja N. Alim, M.D., is an assis-
tant professor and William B.
Lawson, M.D., is a professor
and chair of the Department
of Psychiatry, both at the
Department of Psychiatry and
Behavioral Sciences, Howard
University, Washington, DC.
Adriana Feder, M.D., is an assistant
professor; Brian M. Iacoviello,
Ph.D., is a postdoctoral fellow;
and Shireen Saxena, M.S.,
Christopher R. Bailey, and
Allison M. Greene, M.S., are
research associates; all at the
Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Program, Department of Psychiatry,
Mount Sinai School of Medicine,
New York, New York.
Alexander Neumeister, M.D., is
a professor in the Department of
Psychiatry and Radiology, New
York University Langone Medical
Center, New York, New York.
Acute and chronic stress–related mechanisms play an important role in the
development of addiction and its chronic, relapsing nature. Multisystem adaptations in
brain, body, behavioral, and social function may contribute to a dysregulated
physiological state that is maintained beyond the homeostatic range. In addition,
chronic abuse of substances leads to an altered set point across multiple systems.
Resilience can be defined as the absence of psychopathology despite exposure to
high stress and reflects a person’s ability to cope successfully in the face of adversity,
demonstrating adaptive psychological and physiological stress responses. The study of
resilience can be approached by examining interindividual stress responsibility at
multiple phenotypic levels, ranging from psychological differences in the way people
cope with stress to differences in neurochemical or neural circuitry function. The
ultimate goal of such research is the development of strategies and interventions to
enhance resilience and coping in the face of stress and prevent the onset of addiction
problems or relapse. Key WoRDS: Addiction; substance abuse; stress; acute stress
reaction; chronic stress reaction; biological adaptation to stress; psychological
response to stress; physiological response to stress; resilience; relapse; coping
skills; psychobiology
evidence from different disciplinessuggests that acute and chronicstress–related mechanisms play
an important role in both the develop-
ment and the chronic, relapsing nature
of addiction (Baumeister 2003; Baumeister
et al. 1994; Brady and Sinha 2005).
Stress is defined as the physiological
and psychological process resulting from
a challenge to homeostasis by any real
or perceived demand on the body
(Lazarus and Fokman 1984; McEwen
2000; Selye 1976). Stress often induces
multisystem adaptations that occur in
the brain and .
ALCohoL ReSeARCh C u r r e n t R e v i e w s506 Alcohol .docxSHIVA101531
ALCohoL ReSeARCh: C u r r e n t R e v i e w s
506 Alcohol Research: C u r r e n t R e v i e w s
Resilience to Meet the
Challenge of Addiction
Psychobiology and Clinical Considerations
Tanja N. Alim, M.D.; William B. Lawson, M.D.; Adriana Feder, M.D.; Brian M.
Iacoviello, Ph.D.; Shireen Saxena, M.S.; Christopher R. Bailey; Allison M.
Greene, M.S.; and Alexander Neumeister, M.D.
Tanja N. Alim, M.D., is an assis-
tant professor and William B.
Lawson, M.D., is a professor
and chair of the Department
of Psychiatry, both at the
Department of Psychiatry and
Behavioral Sciences, Howard
University, Washington, DC.
Adriana Feder, M.D., is an assistant
professor; Brian M. Iacoviello,
Ph.D., is a postdoctoral fellow;
and Shireen Saxena, M.S.,
Christopher R. Bailey, and
Allison M. Greene, M.S., are
research associates; all at the
Mood and Anxiety Disorders
Program, Department of Psychiatry,
Mount Sinai School of Medicine,
New York, New York.
Alexander Neumeister, M.D., is
a professor in the Department of
Psychiatry and Radiology, New
York University Langone Medical
Center, New York, New York.
Acute and chronic stress–related mechanisms play an important role in the
development of addiction and its chronic, relapsing nature. Multisystem adaptations in
brain, body, behavioral, and social function may contribute to a dysregulated
physiological state that is maintained beyond the homeostatic range. In addition,
chronic abuse of substances leads to an altered set point across multiple systems.
Resilience can be defined as the absence of psychopathology despite exposure to
high stress and reflects a person’s ability to cope successfully in the face of adversity,
demonstrating adaptive psychological and physiological stress responses. The study of
resilience can be approached by examining interindividual stress responsibility at
multiple phenotypic levels, ranging from psychological differences in the way people
cope with stress to differences in neurochemical or neural circuitry function. The
ultimate goal of such research is the development of strategies and interventions to
enhance resilience and coping in the face of stress and prevent the onset of addiction
problems or relapse. Key WoRDS: Addiction; substance abuse; stress; acute stress
reaction; chronic stress reaction; biological adaptation to stress; psychological
response to stress; physiological response to stress; resilience; relapse; coping
skills; psychobiology
evidence from different disciplinessuggests that acute and chronicstress–related mechanisms play
an important role in both the develop-
ment and the chronic, relapsing nature
of addiction (Baumeister 2003; Baumeister
et al. 1994; Brady and Sinha 2005).
Stress is defined as the physiological
and psychological process resulting from
a challenge to homeostasis by any real
or perceived demand on the body
(Lazarus and Fokman 1984; McEwen
2000; Selye 1976). Stress often induces
multisystem adaptations that occur in
the brain and .
When the body is under stress, it produces more of the hormone cortisol, which acts as an anti-inflammatory agent. When cortisol is produced peripherally in the gums, it stimulates mast cells to produce more proteins, simultaneously increasing inflammation and the progression of periodontal disease.
Health Psychology Psychological Adjustment to the Disease, Disability and Lossijtsrd
This article discusses the psychological adjustment of adults to severe or incurable diseases or other loss. The stress that results from a diagnosis of illness or loss depends on many factors, such as the beliefs of each individual and the social context. Considering the diversity of human perceptions, feelings and behaviors, it was considered important for the present study to include a theory of stress and treatment related to physical illness. At the center of attention are end stage individuals, not their organic problems but mainly their psychological state and that of their families. Reference is then made to the loss of loved one and the period of mourning. As regards the disease response, there is a difference between the immediate reaction to loss, what we call mourning, and the adaptation to a new way of life without the loved one. Finally, the role of therapeutic communication between patients and their families and mental health professionals, as well as the need to maintain psychological balance, is also described. Agathi Argyriadi | Alexandros Argyriadis ""Health Psychology: Psychological Adjustment to the Disease, Disability and Loss"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23200.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/psychology/23200/health-psychology-psychological-adjustment-to-the-disease-disability-and-loss/agathi-argyriadi
Temperament, Childhood Illness Burden, and Illness Behavior in.docxmanningchassidy
Temperament, Childhood Illness Burden, and Illness Behavior in
Early Adulthood
Brittany L. Sisco-Taylor
University of California, Riverside
Robin P. Corley, Michael C. Stallings,
and Sally J. Wadsworth
University of Colorado, Boulder
Chandra A. Reynolds
University of California, Riverside
Objective: Illness behaviors— or responses to bodily symptoms—predict individuals’ recovery and
functioning; however, there has been little research on the early life personality antecedents of illness
behavior. This study’s primary aims were to evaluate (a) childhood temperament traits (i.e., emotionality
and sociability) as predictors of adult illness behaviors, independent of objective health; and (b) adult
temperament traits for mediation of childhood temperament’s associations. Method: Participants in-
cluded 714 (53% male; 350 adoptive family and 364 control family) children and siblings from the
Colorado Adoption Project (CAP; Plomin & DeFries, 1983). Structural regression analyses evaluated
paths from childhood temperament to illness behavior (i.e., somatic complaints, sick days, and medica-
tion use) at two adulthood assessments (CAP years 21 and 30). Analyses controlled for participant age,
sex, family type (adoptive or control), adopted status, parent education/occupation, and middle childhood
illnesses, doctor visits, and life events stress. Results: Latent illness behavior factors were established
across 2 adulthood assessments. Multilevel path analyses revealed that higher emotionality (fearfulness)
in adulthood— but not childhood temperament—predicted higher levels of illness behavior at both
assessments. Lastly, lower emotionality-fearfulness partially mediated the effect of higher childhood
sociability on adult illness behavior. Conclusions: Results suggest the importance of childhood illness
experiences and adult emotionality (fearfulness) in shaping illness behavior in early adulthood. They also
suggest a small, protective role of childhood sociability on reduced trait fearfulness in adulthood. These
findings broaden our understanding of the prospective links between temperament and illness behavior
development, suggesting distinct associations from early life illness experiences.
Keywords: illness behavior, temperament, burden of illness, young adult, health promotion
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/hea0000759.supp
In 2013, United States health care expenditures reached $2.9
trillion, with an average personal health cost of $9,255 per capita
(National Center for Health Statistics, 2014). Such daunting ex-
penditures point to a need for increased efficiency in the delivery
and utilization of health services. As a first step, however, the
process of illness must be better understood. In other words, what
psychological and behavioral processes occur before people seek
(or choose not to seek) formal health services? Illness behavior—a
psychosocial construct defined as individuals’ perceptions, evalu-
ations, and res ...
Temperament, Childhood Illness Burden, and Illness Behavior in.docxbradburgess22840
Temperament, Childhood Illness Burden, and Illness Behavior in
Early Adulthood
Brittany L. Sisco-Taylor
University of California, Riverside
Robin P. Corley, Michael C. Stallings,
and Sally J. Wadsworth
University of Colorado, Boulder
Chandra A. Reynolds
University of California, Riverside
Objective: Illness behaviors— or responses to bodily symptoms—predict individuals’ recovery and
functioning; however, there has been little research on the early life personality antecedents of illness
behavior. This study’s primary aims were to evaluate (a) childhood temperament traits (i.e., emotionality
and sociability) as predictors of adult illness behaviors, independent of objective health; and (b) adult
temperament traits for mediation of childhood temperament’s associations. Method: Participants in-
cluded 714 (53% male; 350 adoptive family and 364 control family) children and siblings from the
Colorado Adoption Project (CAP; Plomin & DeFries, 1983). Structural regression analyses evaluated
paths from childhood temperament to illness behavior (i.e., somatic complaints, sick days, and medica-
tion use) at two adulthood assessments (CAP years 21 and 30). Analyses controlled for participant age,
sex, family type (adoptive or control), adopted status, parent education/occupation, and middle childhood
illnesses, doctor visits, and life events stress. Results: Latent illness behavior factors were established
across 2 adulthood assessments. Multilevel path analyses revealed that higher emotionality (fearfulness)
in adulthood— but not childhood temperament—predicted higher levels of illness behavior at both
assessments. Lastly, lower emotionality-fearfulness partially mediated the effect of higher childhood
sociability on adult illness behavior. Conclusions: Results suggest the importance of childhood illness
experiences and adult emotionality (fearfulness) in shaping illness behavior in early adulthood. They also
suggest a small, protective role of childhood sociability on reduced trait fearfulness in adulthood. These
findings broaden our understanding of the prospective links between temperament and illness behavior
development, suggesting distinct associations from early life illness experiences.
Keywords: illness behavior, temperament, burden of illness, young adult, health promotion
Supplemental materials: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/hea0000759.supp
In 2013, United States health care expenditures reached $2.9
trillion, with an average personal health cost of $9,255 per capita
(National Center for Health Statistics, 2014). Such daunting ex-
penditures point to a need for increased efficiency in the delivery
and utilization of health services. As a first step, however, the
process of illness must be better understood. In other words, what
psychological and behavioral processes occur before people seek
(or choose not to seek) formal health services? Illness behavior—a
psychosocial construct defined as individuals’ perceptions, evalu-
ations, and res.
PTSD and Allostatic Load: Beneath the skin interrupting the pathways to path...Michael Changaris
This slideshow explores the way that stress leads to biological pathology. It attempts to connect the adverse childhood events study with Bruce McEwen's work on cortisol and stress. It explored the impact of PTSD, early childhood trauma and stress on health and longevity.
A minimum of 100 words each and References Response (#1 – 6) KEEP .docxevonnehoggarth79783
A minimum of 100 words each and References Response (#1 – 6) KEEP RESPONSE WITH ANSWER EACH ANSWER NEED TO HAVE A SCHOLARY SOURCE with a Hyperlink
Make sure the Responses includes the Following: (a) an understanding of the weekly content as supported by a scholarly resource, (b) the provision of a probing question. (c) stay on topic
1. I like how you mentioned how people can have an attitude towards these people because they have the inability to do things like others. This is true because people with this disorder might not be able to do normal things we do everyday. When someone cant do these normal things, society looks at them in a weird way. Society doesn't know how to accept these kind of people in their life yet because they do not understand what it is. I like your idea about including them in everyday activities so they do not feel left out. What can you do to help others understand a little more about this disease and to show them these people are not dangerous?
2. Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder in which personal, social, and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of unusual perceptions, odd thoughts, disturbed emotions, and motor abnormalities. Years ago it e the label was at times assigned to anyone who acted unpredictably or strangely (Comer, 2020). The symptoms can be grouped into three categories: positive symptoms Below (excesses of thought, emotion, and behavior), negative symptoms (deficits of thought, emotion, and behavior), and psychomotor symptoms (unusual movements or gestures). Hallucinations are another huge thing that a person with schizophrenia deals with which are the experiencing of sights, sounds, smells, and other perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli. These can happen for a number of reasons like constant migraines to deprivation. This can normally begin noticeable between the person’s late teens and mid- thirties. Along with the impulse control and speech issues, this disorder can make one feel lost. Behind years of research on studying this disorder, this is mainly a biological disorder, and many people will see this disorder and label the people as "Crazy" when it can be implemented by a dysfunctional brain circuit. This disorder should be taken more seriously by people, especially when someone suffering from it can put themselves or others in danger. The most important thing is paying attention to someones triggers.
3. Many people hold negative attitudes toward people with schizophrenia. They are seen as people who fail to conform to normal behaviors. People with schizophrenia display a decrease in speech and speech content, display less anger, sadness, joy, no facial expression, and may take extreme forms. With 85-85 percent of people with schizophrenia, they are not dangerous, these people are simply just misunderstood. However, bias exists because most people do not understand schizophrenia. They have watched the movies with people being told to kill someone by the.
Journal of Traumatic StressApril 2013, 26, 266–273Public.docxtawnyataylor528
Journal of Traumatic Stress
April 2013, 26, 266–273
Public Mental Health Clients with Severe Mental Illness and
Probable Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Trauma Exposure and
Correlates of Symptom Severity
Weili Lu,1 Philip T. Yanos,2 Steven M. Silverstein,3 Kim T. Mueser,4 Stanley D. Rosenberg,4
Jennifer D. Gottlieb,4 Stephanie Marcello Duva,5 Thanuja Kularatne,1 Stephanie Dove-Williams,5
Danielle Paterno,5 Danielle Hawthorne,5 and Giovanna Giacobbe5
1Department of Psychiatric Rehabilitation and Counseling Professions, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey,
Scotch Plains, New Jersey, USA
2John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Department of Psychology, CUNY, New York, New York, USA
3Division of Schizophrenia Research, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New
Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
4Department of Psychiatry, Dartmouth Medical School, Concord, New Hampshire, USA
5University Behavioral Health Care, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
Individuals with severe mental illness (SMI) are at greatly increased risk for trauma exposure and for the development of posttraumatic
stress disorder (PTSD). This study reports findings from a large, comprehensive screening of trauma and PTSD symptoms among public
mental health clients in a statewide community mental health system. In 851 individuals with SMI and probable PTSD, childhood sexual
abuse was the most commonly endorsed index trauma, followed closely by the sudden death of a loved one. Participants had typically
experienced an average of 7 types of traumatic events in their lifetime. The number of types of traumatic events experienced and Hispanic
ethnicity were significantly associated with PTSD symptom severity. Clients reported experiencing PTSD in relation to events that occurred
on average 20 years earlier, suggesting the clinical need to address trauma and loss throughout the lifespan, including their prolonged
after-effects.
Over the past two decades, a growing body of research has
shown that individuals with severe mental illness (SMI) are
at greatly increased risk for trauma exposure (see Grubaugh,
Zinzow, Paul, Egede, & Frueh, 2011, for a review). Although
national surveys indicate that more than half of people in the
general population report exposure to at least one event that
according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (4th ed., DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Associa-
tion, 1994) meets criteria for trauma (Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet,
Hughes, & Nelson, 1995), studies of people with a SMI (such as
This research was supported by National Institute of Mental Health grant R01
MH064662. We wish to thank the following individuals for their assistance
with this project: Edward Kim, Lee Hyer, Rachael Fite, Kenneth Gill, Rose-
marie Rosati, Christopher Kosseff, Karen Somers, John Swanson, Avis Scott,
Rena Gitlitz, John Markey, Zygmond Gray, Marilyn Green, Alex Sh ...
Educational & Child Psychology; Vol. 36 No. 3 33
Evaluating the impact of an autogenic
training relaxation intervention on levels
of anxiety amongst adolescents in school
Tracey Atkins & Ben Hayes
Aim: This study aimed to investigate the impact of a group-based autogenic training (AT) relaxation
intervention on levels of anxiety in adolescents in mainstream school settings.
Method: A mixed-methods design was used to measure differences in levels of anxiety and explore a range
of perceived changes between groups over time. Sixty-six young people aged between 14 and 15 years old
from four mainstream schools in the UK were randomly assigned within each school to an intervention
or wait-list control group. Quantitative data were analysed using a mixed between-within subjects ANOVA.
Qualitative information from 12 volunteer participants was analysed using thematic analysis.
Findings: Results showed a main effect of time for both the intervention group and the wait-list group
however, no significant main interaction was found. Qualitative results showed perceived improvements
in social relationships and connectivity; reflectiveness; self-awareness; physiological symptoms; and a sense
of control.
Limitations: Measures were reliant on self-reported data. Schools were recruited through self-referral and
expression of interest, excluding participants who may not have the opportunity to take part. There were
no opportunities to collect follow-up data.
Conclusions: Results suggest that a structured AT relaxation intervention delivered in a familiar
school environment may significantly reduce levels of anxiety amongst adolescents. However, significant
improvements for the wait-list group also raises questions around the potential of other supportive
variables, such as acknowledgement and validation of feelings, the promise and availability of
forthcoming support and the potential impact of raised awareness and interest in pupil wellbeing
amongst school staff.
Keywords: autogenic training; relaxation; adolescence; mind-body interventions; anxiety.
M
ENTAL HEALTH difficulties in
young people are a serious cause for
concern across the world. The World
Health Organization (WHO) reports that in
half of all cases of mental health conditions,
onset has occurred by the age of 14 years
old; suicide is the third leading cause of
death in 15–19 year olds; and the second
leading cause of death in girls (WHO, 2018).
It is estimated that one in ten children and
young people aged 5–16 years old have
a diagnosable mental health disorder in the
UK alone; and at least one in 12 children
and young people deliberately self-harm
(Young Minds, 2018).
In 2009, the UK government identi-
fied mental health as everyone’s business
(Department of Health; DoH, 2009) and
was specific about prevention and the tran-
sition time between adolescence and early
adulthood. Suggestions for schools include
promoting students’ mental health as part
of ...
2. Hardt 2
Childhood Adversity and Negative Health Outcomes: A Public Health Problem
Stressors, particularly adverse events, during childhood are linked to the leading causes of
death in the adult population (Felitti 1998). In fact, researchers found a dose-response
relationship between the number of adverse childhood events (ACEs) and the prevalence
of cognitive, behavioral, and physical health problems later in life. This relationship poses
major public health problem for the majority of the US population. The 1998 ACEs study
found that up to 67% of the population reported at least 1 ACE, with over 12.6% reporting
12 or more (Felitti 1998). Risk factors for experiencing ACEs include poverty, parental
mental illness, substance abuse, and maltreatment, all of which often co-occur (Tyrka
2013). The disproportionate risk for low-income children may be a major contributing
factor in the perpetuated poor health outcomes in low-income communities. This paper
will provide an over view of current literature regarding the impact of adverse childhood
events. Published manuscripts were obtained from journals in multiple disciplines,
including public health, psychology, medicine, neurobiology, as well as early childhood and
family studies.
Impacts of Childhood Adversity
In 1998, The ACEs study was published in the American Journal of Preventative Medicine
that revealed a strong associated between adverse childhood events and several of the
leading causes of death in the adult population (Felitti et al.) The study defined adverse
childhood events as emotional, physical, or sexual abuse and household dysfunction during
childhood. A questionnaire was mailed to 13,494 adults who had completed a standardized
medical evaluation at a large HMO. A total of 7 categories were studies: psychological,
physical, or sexual abuse, violence against mother, living with household members who
3. Hardt 3
were substance abusers, mentally ill, or suicidal. They compared these measures to adult
risk behavior, such as smoking or drinking, health status, and disease. More than half of the
respondents reported at least 1 ACE, and ¼ more than two. They found a dose response
relationship between the breadth of exposure to abuse or household dysfunction during
childhood and risk factors for leading causes of death in adults, including ischemic heart
disease, cancer, chronic lung disease, skeletal fractures, liver diseases, and poor personal
rated health (Felitti et al, 1998).
The degree to which a given stressor affects an individual is complicated, and is dependent
on the type, frequency, and nature of the stressor, co-occurrence with multiple stressors,
and the developmental period when the stress occurs (Tyrka 2013). Stress “toxicity” or
“tolerability” is difficult to measure in humans, as a stressor deemed toxic for one
individual may be completely tolerable for another. The subjective perception of certain
stressors is a major challenge in ACE impact research, and a potential source of
confounding in research about impact, treatment, and prevention (Wade 2014). In order to
move forward with this field of research, the ability to accurately measure the toxicity of a
given stressor for an individual, as well as the most prevalent stressors for a given
community, must be improved.
While the problem of perception and subjectivity poses a challenge for this field, it may also
be the key to developing effective treatment. According to a study conducted by the
University of Wisconsin Madison, stress was only be associated with negative health
outcomes if the participants who perceived stress as a harmful to their own health.
Individuals who reported high stress but did not perceive that stress to be impacting them
4. Hardt 4
negatively did not experience negative health outcomes, even compared to individuals who
did not report any significant stress in their life (Keller, 2012). This finding, among others,
highlights the potential benefit of altering perception related to stress. This is not to say
that ACEs can be “perceived” as a positive experience, but giving children, or adults who
have experienced ACEs in the past, the tools to reframe their experience may actually help
prevent the negative health outcomes by rebuilding the learned neural circuitry and
emotional response associated with the event (Tyrka 2013).
In order to fully comprehend the negative health outcomes associated with ACEs, research
focused on the neurobiological impact of the stress response mechanism. Exposure to a
stressor for any individual triggers the sympathetic nervous system, and causes an
alteration of physiological systems, including appetite, gastrointestinal activity, sexual
function, increased heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac out put and impaired immune
system functioning and fuel storage. This response is natural and can be beneficial for short
periods of time. However, prolonged stress can alter the physiology, neuroplasticity, and
emotional reactivity for that individual (Tyrka, 2013). For example, chronic stress causes
decreased dendritic density of neurons in the prefrontal cortex and striatum associated
with decision-making abilities, and increased dendritic density in areas of the prefrontal
cortex and striatum associated with habit driven behavior (Science, 2009). In other words,
chronic stress decreases an individual’s ability to conduct flexible decision-making needed
to succeed in every-day life, and increases their tendency to stick to routine, habit driven
behaviors, even if those behaviors are detrimental to the individual’s health.
5. Hardt 5
Children are particularly vulnerable to stressors due to dependency and cognitive
developmental factors. During development, children are entirely dependent on their
caregivers for their basic physical, social, and emotional needs. Therefore, an adverse
environment in the household completely undermines their ability to access basic needs
required for healthy development. At the same time, a child’s brain is undergoing rapid and
large-scale developmental changes in neural pathways that regulate emotion and behavior
(Tykra 2013). A study published in Nature Science, in accordance with Tykra et al, found
that early caregiving behaviors play a critical role in the normal development of brain
circuits involved in the regulation of stress reactivity, learning and memory,
neuroplasticity, and behavior (2009). Specifically, the study exposed rat pups to high levels
of stress, and then randomized those pups to rat moms that demonstrated frequent licking,
or no licking, post stressful event. They found that even if the adult rat was not the pup’s
biological mother, the pup developed better stress coping mechanisms and resiliency, or
stress immunization, if they were randomized to moms with frequent licking. Furthermore,
those same pups demonstrated high levels of licking behaviors for their own children in the
future compared to those that did not receiving licking (2009).
The authors also examined epigenetic differences between postmortem hippocampus
obtained from suicide victims with a history of childhood abuse and those from suicide
victims with no childhood abuse or controls. They claim that their findings translate the rat
maternal care experiment to human subjects, and suggest a common effect of parental care
on the epigenetic regulation of hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor expression involved in
the ability to cope with stressful situations (McGowan et al. 2009). McGowan et al’s and
6. Hardt 6
Tykra et al’s findings both demonstrate how ACEs cause humans to suffer long lasting
alterations in neurobiological, behavioral, and social systems (2009, 2013).
Another significant finding of McGowan et al and Tykra’s et al research is the cyclic nature
of childhood adversity. If a child is born into a household that puts them at
disproportionate risk for experiencing an adverse event, such as a low socio-economic
status, they are also likely to lack the support they need to deal with that stressor, and
more likely to engage in risky behaviors that will put their own children at risk for the
same outcome in the future (2009, 2013). In this way, the negative impact of ACEs can be
seen as perpetuating negative health outcomes in low-income communities (Wade 2014).
Kristen Springer, MPH MA et al, The Long Term Health Outcomes of Childhood Abuse: an
Overview and a Call to Action, found that individuals who experience one or more ACE
throughout their lifetime experience a plethora of psychological and somatic symptoms, as
well as psychiatric and medical diagnosis, including but not limited to depression, anxiety,
eating disorders, PTSD, chronic pain, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue, and irritable bowel
syndrome (2003). Springer’s “Call to Action” emphasized the need to focus medical
attention on the impacts of ACEs, and incorporate routine screening into primary care. Her
team, in accordance with the 1998 ACEs study, found that although most patients want
their doctors to scan for a history of abuse, most physicians admit they do not do so, as they
feel their patient would be uncomfortable discussing such personal information. However,
between 20% to 50% of the patient population in primary care has been exposed to
physical or sexual abuse. Of those patients who are suffering from depression, irritable
bowel syndrome, chronic pain, or substance abuse, as many as 70% were exposed to
7. Hardt 7
physical or sexual abuse (Springer 2003). Springer’s argument addresses the need for an
“upstream” approach to medicine, in which the medical care shifts attention from treating
the disease in isolation to identifying the underlying causes of the disease to achieve true
population level impact.
The previously outlined impacts of ACEs create systematic barriers to an individual’s
ability to succeed in the educational system, and consequently to obtain economic stability
in the future. In a classroom setting, children from low socioeconomic status backgrounds
were found to have a higher incidence of behavioral problems as compared to the general
population (Huaqing 2003). Behavioral problems and consequent punishment decrease a
child’s confidence and ability to succeed in the classroom, decreasing access to higher
education and economic stability in the future. At the same time, behavioral problems in a
child are intimately linked with parent characteristics, parenting style, and socio-
demographic factors (Huaqing, 2003). For example, children with adolescent mothers at
risk for substance abuse had higher rates of problem behaviors than children enrolled in
the Head Start program for low-income communities (Huanqing 2003). This difference may
be correlated with ACE exposure and access to positive mentors to help process exposure
to adverse events.
Causes
The impact of adverse childhood events is caused by the interaction of socio-economic
factors and individual psychobiological responses. Tykra et al. identified coping behaviors
as the link between negative health outcomes and ACEs, such as smoking, alcohol or drug
abuse, over eating, or sexual behaviors. These behaviors may be consciously or
unconsciously employed for their immediate pharmacological or psychological benefit in
8. Hardt 8
the face of an adverse experience or past (2014). However, using these mechanisms to cope
with current and past stressors only perpetuates the problem for future generations, as
they effectively increase an individual’s risk for developing a substance abuse, mental
illness, and social conflict in adulthood (Tyrkra 2013). So begins the cycle of childhood
adversity across multiple generations, as an adverse event for one individual may cause
them to develop behaviors that put their own children at risk for experiencing an ACE
(Peterson T, 2013).
Socio-economic factors are a major driving factor for this cycle. For example, Krueger PM
and Chang studied how smoking and inactivity increased the impact of stress for entire
population. They found that low income individuals were at disproportionate risk for
negative health outcomes as all three variables, physical inactivity, smoking, and low socio-
economic status, work independently to increase risk poor health outcomes, and in
combination they create a truly disadvantage proportion of the population (2008). Those
with lower socio-economic status have less access to mental health care, therefore are less
likely to receive the treatment they need to over-come the affects of adversity.
According to Wade et al, more research needs to be dedicated to context specific adverse
events in low-income communities, which are at greatest risk for ACEs and have worse
health outcomes compared to other socio-economic sub groups. The authors conducted
focus groups of young adults in low-income areas to evaluate stressors, and found that the
current evaluation of ACEs does not adequately represent the most vulnerable categories
in those communities. The most common cause for adverse events identified in their study
was substance abuse in the home, followed by community stressors such as neighborhood
9. Hardt 9
violence, crime and death. The study collected and incorporated personal quotes from
participants about their ACE experiences, and emphasized the need to include the voice of
low-income youth in ACE research: “Our work provides a youth perspective on the concept
of childhood adversity” (Wade, 2014).
Conclusion
The consensus across literature is that early life stressors will significantly increase an
individual’s susceptibility to negative health outcomes. However, three major gaps have
been identified: 1) consensus on what qualifies as an adverse childhood experience, and
furthermore, which of those experiences can justifiably lead to negative health outcomes
(tolerable versus toxic stressors) while still accounting for individualized, subjective
experience 2) how ACEs can be prevented and successfully treated in both the adult and
child population, with specific emphasis on low income communities, and 3) the need to
avoid a “top down approach” and to engage with at-risk communities to identify the most
prevalent stressors. It is encouraging the see the inter-disciplinary research attention this
public health problem is generating, but more community engagement is needed to
successfully leverage research into real interventions and treatment approaches in order to
interrupt the vicious cycle of childhood adversity.
10. Hardt 10
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