Research ethics evolved in response to unethical human experimentation. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study and Nazi human experiments violated principles of informed consent and caused harm. This led to the Nuremberg Code which established standards of voluntary consent and that risks must not outweigh benefits. Subsequent declarations further developed ethical guidelines regarding subjects' rights, like privacy and confidentiality. Institutional review boards now oversee research to protect human participants.
Ethical standards are important in research for several reasons. They promote truthful and accurate research by prohibiting falsification of data. They also promote collaboration through values like trust and accountability. Ethical standards ensure researchers are accountable to the public since they are often publicly funded. Following ethics helps build public support and trust in research. Areas of unethical conduct include plagiarism, fabrication, failing to publish results, faulty methods, and improper authorship. Researchers have a duty to protect subjects' rights, obtain informed consent, and conduct legal and responsible research.
This document discusses research misconduct and outlines its harms, definitions, taxonomy, and common principles of research integrity. It notes that research misconduct undermines public trust, corrupts the scientific record, and leads to false conclusions. The document defines research misconduct according to the US Commission on Research Integrity and British Consensus Panel. It ranks misconduct in four levels of seriousness, from fabrication/falsification/plagiarism to lesser issues. Finally, it presents a "misconduct triangle" of opportunity, rationalization, and incentive, and lists common principles of research integrity.
This document discusses ethical issues in research. It defines ethics as a methodology for making sound decisions that respect individuals' rights. Ethics are important as they keep researchers from misconduct and promote trust, understanding, and collaborative work. The key principles of research ethics discussed are integrity, objectivity, beneficence, privacy, honesty, autonomy, justice, and openness. The document outlines seven areas of scientific dishonesty like plagiarism, fabrication, and non-publication of data. It also discusses ethical issues regarding participants, animal subjects, copyright, and human rights in research.
The document discusses ethics in research and publication, outlining researchers' ethical responsibilities, approaches to ethical decision making, guidelines like the Belmont Report and APA Ethics Code, and considerations like informed consent, minimizing risks to participants, ensuring confidentiality, and the review processes of Institutional Review Boards and Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees. It also examines issues like scientific misconduct, ethical challenges in animal research, and case studies like Milgram's obedience experiment.
Dr. Sandhya Dhokia provides an overview of research methodology. She defines research as a careful investigation to discover new facts through scientific procedures. The objectives of research can include gaining familiarity with a phenomenon, accurately portraying characteristics of a situation, determining how frequently something occurs, and testing hypotheses. Motivations for research include obtaining degrees, solving problems, intellectual enjoyment, and helping society. The document also outlines different types of research approaches and methods.
This document provides an introduction to research methodology. It defines research as a systematic process of enunciating a problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting and analyzing facts, and reaching conclusions. The objectives of research are to gain familiarity with phenomena, portray characteristics of individuals or groups, determine frequency of occurrences, and test causal relationships. Motivations for research include the desire to solve problems, gain intellectual joy, help society, gain respect, and obtain degrees. Research methodology helps qualitatively control the research process and validate results. It involves the logic and design of research, including methods for data collection, analysis, and evaluation.
Ethical standards are important in research for several reasons. They promote truthful and accurate research by prohibiting falsification of data. They also promote collaboration through values like trust and accountability. Ethical standards ensure researchers are accountable to the public since they are often publicly funded. Following ethics helps build public support and trust in research. Areas of unethical conduct include plagiarism, fabrication, failing to publish results, faulty methods, and improper authorship. Researchers have a duty to protect subjects' rights, obtain informed consent, and conduct legal and responsible research.
This document discusses research misconduct and outlines its harms, definitions, taxonomy, and common principles of research integrity. It notes that research misconduct undermines public trust, corrupts the scientific record, and leads to false conclusions. The document defines research misconduct according to the US Commission on Research Integrity and British Consensus Panel. It ranks misconduct in four levels of seriousness, from fabrication/falsification/plagiarism to lesser issues. Finally, it presents a "misconduct triangle" of opportunity, rationalization, and incentive, and lists common principles of research integrity.
This document discusses ethical issues in research. It defines ethics as a methodology for making sound decisions that respect individuals' rights. Ethics are important as they keep researchers from misconduct and promote trust, understanding, and collaborative work. The key principles of research ethics discussed are integrity, objectivity, beneficence, privacy, honesty, autonomy, justice, and openness. The document outlines seven areas of scientific dishonesty like plagiarism, fabrication, and non-publication of data. It also discusses ethical issues regarding participants, animal subjects, copyright, and human rights in research.
The document discusses ethics in research and publication, outlining researchers' ethical responsibilities, approaches to ethical decision making, guidelines like the Belmont Report and APA Ethics Code, and considerations like informed consent, minimizing risks to participants, ensuring confidentiality, and the review processes of Institutional Review Boards and Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees. It also examines issues like scientific misconduct, ethical challenges in animal research, and case studies like Milgram's obedience experiment.
Dr. Sandhya Dhokia provides an overview of research methodology. She defines research as a careful investigation to discover new facts through scientific procedures. The objectives of research can include gaining familiarity with a phenomenon, accurately portraying characteristics of a situation, determining how frequently something occurs, and testing hypotheses. Motivations for research include obtaining degrees, solving problems, intellectual enjoyment, and helping society. The document also outlines different types of research approaches and methods.
This document provides an introduction to research methodology. It defines research as a systematic process of enunciating a problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting and analyzing facts, and reaching conclusions. The objectives of research are to gain familiarity with phenomena, portray characteristics of individuals or groups, determine frequency of occurrences, and test causal relationships. Motivations for research include the desire to solve problems, gain intellectual joy, help society, gain respect, and obtain degrees. Research methodology helps qualitatively control the research process and validate results. It involves the logic and design of research, including methods for data collection, analysis, and evaluation.
Medical research is important for several reasons:
1) It helps discover new facts and develop new techniques to cure diseases, keep people alive longer, and improve quality of life.
2) Research is necessary to find causes of diseases, develop new treatments through clinical trials, and create diagnostic tests for early detection.
3) Many modern medical advances like vaccines, blood pressure medications, and transplant surgery resulted from past medical studies.
This document discusses publication ethics and best practices for publishing research. It outlines what constitutes a good journal for publication, including being peer-reviewed and indexed in databases. It also warns about fake journal metrics and bogus journals. The document covers responsibilities of authors such as originality, transparency and retracting work if needed. Various forms of research misconduct like falsification, fabrication and plagiarism are described. Finally, the roles and responsibilities of editors, journal owners, publishers and reviewers are mentioned.
Dr. Sarika Sawant presented on research ethics at a seminar. She discussed the definition of research ethics as regulating scientific activity to protect human participants and serve societal interests. She covered objectives like ensuring consent and oversight. Issues discussed included plagiarism, data handling, and research with humans and animals. National guidelines in India were also presented, as well as UNESCO's ethical guidelines focusing on informed consent, confidentiality, and integrity.
This document provides an overview of ethics in research. It defines ethics and discusses key historical events that shaped modern research ethics like the Nazi experiments and the Nuremberg Code. The three primary ethical principles of beneficence, respect for human dignity, and justice are examined. Informed consent, risks/benefits analysis, and the role of institutional review boards in ensuring ethical research are covered. Challenges in vulnerable populations and qualitative/mixed methods research are also summarized.
The document discusses the background and definition of research ethics. It defines ethics as norms for conduct that distinguish acceptable from unacceptable behavior. Research ethics refers to rules that define proper conduct for researchers and are aimed at protecting human subjects. The history of modern research ethics is traced back to unethical medical experiments conducted by Nazi doctors during World War 2, which led to the Nuremberg Code establishing ethical principles for research involving human subjects. Other influential documents discussed include the Helsinki Declaration, Belmont Report, and controversies like the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.
The document provides an overview of the history of research ethics and key events that led to the establishment of ethical guidelines and regulations. It discusses scandals such as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and experiments conducted by Nazi Germany. These events prompted milestones like the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and Belmont Report. The Belmont Report outlines basic ethical principles including respect for persons, beneficence, and justice that provide a framework for resolving issues in human subjects research.
This document discusses research ethics. It defines ethics and research ethics, and explains the importance of ethics in promoting valid research, building trust, and accountability. Key stakeholders in research like participants, researchers, funding agencies are discussed. Important ethical issues related to participants include informed consent, privacy and preventing harm. Ethical issues for researchers include honesty, objectivity, and appropriate methodology. Ethical issues for funders include restricting research and potential misuse of findings. The conclusion emphasizes balancing these issues, following guidelines, and acting ethically despite challenges to uphold scientific integrity.
Research ethics involves applying ethical principles to scientific research involving human subjects. The objectives of research ethics are to protect human participants, ensure research benefits society, and ensure research is conducted ethically. Key principles include minimizing harm, obtaining informed consent, protecting anonymity and confidentiality, avoiding misleading practices, and allowing participants to withdraw. Research ethics promotes trust, accountability, and social values in research. However, research poses risks of physical, psychological, social, and economic harm to participants. It may also divert resources from other health needs.
This is a presentation I gave to the Research Coordinators in the Federal Ministry of Health, Sudan (04.03.2015).
It included the following topics:
• Overview on the Knowledge Management Cycle and how research fits in it
• Brief historical background on research ethics
• What makes research ethical?
• Definition and examples of scientific misconduct
• How to make your research ethical and avoid scientific misconduct?
This document discusses research ethics and the ethical issues involved in conducting research. It outlines three approaches to ethics: universal moral code, individual conscience, and weighing costs and benefits. It identifies three stakeholders in research: participants, researchers, and funding bodies. The document then examines several ethical issues concerning research participants, such as obtaining informed consent, avoiding harm, maintaining confidentiality and anonymity of data. It also discusses ethical responsibilities of researchers, such as avoiding bias and misuse of data, and of funding bodies, such as not imposing restrictions or misusing data.
Here are the key points about informed consent:
- It is a process, not just a form. Researchers must ensure participants understand what participation involves through clear verbal and written explanations.
- Consent forms should be written in plain, easy-to-understand language appropriate for the population.
- Participants must be able to refuse or withdraw from the study without penalty.
- Risks and limitations of confidentiality should be clearly explained.
- Participants should have the opportunity to ask questions to fully comprehend what they are consenting to.
- Informed consent is an ongoing process, not a single event, with the option for participants to withdraw later.
The goal is to respect participants' autonomy by
I explain plainly what is salami silcing, a practice of fragmenting single research into as many publications as possible. Salami publishing and hazards
The document discusses research ethics and identifies important ethical principles to consider during the research process, including when developing the research problem, question, and design, collecting and analyzing data, and disseminating results. It highlights historical examples of unethical research like the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Key principles that must be respected include informed consent, minimizing harm, respecting participants, and maintaining integrity. Researchers should obtain ethics approval and consult their institutional review board if they have any ethical questions or concerns.
This document discusses ethics in medical research. It begins by outlining the lesson objectives which are to explain ethics, describe important historical events related to research ethics, list important guidelines, describe informed consent, and describe the role of institutional ethics committees. It then discusses the definition of ethics, important historical incidents like the Nuremberg trials, Thalidomide tragedy, and Tuskegee syphilis experiment. It also describes key documents that outline research ethics guidelines like the Nuremberg Code, Helsinki Declaration, ICH Guidelines, and ICMR Guidelines. It concludes by explaining informed consent and the responsibilities of institutional ethics committees in research.
Publication ethics: Definitions, Introduction and ImportanceVasantha Raju N
The document provides an overview of publication ethics and discusses its importance. It defines publication ethics as the principles and standards associated with publishing scientific research results. This includes giving proper credit and authorship, avoiding plagiarism and duplicate publication, managing conflicts of interest, and not falsifying or fabricating research data. The document highlights various unethical practices like plagiarism, gift authorship, and predatory journals. It also discusses guidelines from organizations like COPE, ICMJE and reporting standards to promote ethical research practices.
This document discusses ethics in research. It defines ethics and research ethics, covering honesty and respect for participants. It provides examples of unethical historical studies that harmed participants. Key ethics documents are summarized, including the Nuremberg Code, Belmont Report, and Institutional Review Board guidelines around informed consent, risks/benefits, confidentiality, and voluntary participation. The document also discusses issues like deception, errors versus fraud, plagiarism, and misleading data presentation.
This document discusses various qualitative research methods for collecting and analyzing data. It describes qualitative research as focusing on collecting narrative and visual non-numerical data to understand a phenomenon of interest. It then outlines several common qualitative research approaches like grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology, narrative research, case studies and the types of data collection methods used in each approach such as interviews, observations, focus groups and document analysis. Finally, it discusses the process of analyzing qualitative data which typically involves preparing, organizing, coding and categorizing the data to identify themes and patterns.
Philosophy of ethics and Publication ethics paleeri
This document discusses philosophy, ethics, and publication ethics. It defines philosophy as the study of truth, knowledge, values and reality. Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with morality and right versus wrong. There are three main branches of ethics: meta ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Publication ethics provides guidelines for ethical publishing practices, including avoiding plagiarism, fabrication of data, and ensuring proper attribution of authors. Upholding publication ethics is important to maintain integrity and prevent misconduct in academic publishing.
This document discusses research misconduct and issues of reproducibility. It defines research misconduct as fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism. While science aims to be self-correcting, many published findings are not reproducible or trustworthy. Several factors make results less likely to be true, such as small studies, small effect sizes, and conflicts of interest. Efforts are underway to improve reproducibility through replicating studies, publishing negative results, and establishing standards for transparent and ethical research.
The Presentation will take the reader through various ethical issues in biomedical research. It covers topics like The Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, Declaration of Geneva, selected code and regulations that guide research with human subjects, etc.
General Ethics.ppthghhgghhgghfddddghhhgjhhKennyjrLMunisi
This document provides an overview of the history of research ethics and the development of guidelines and codes to protect human subjects. It discusses early events that sparked ethics reforms, such as the 1900 Prussian Directive in response to non-consensual human experiments. It also covers the unethical Nazi experiments, the Nuremberg Code, the Declaration of Helsinki, and the Belmont Report. The document outlines several international guidelines that now govern health research, including the CIOMS guidelines and ICH GCP, and emphasizes the global adoption of principles like respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
Medical research is important for several reasons:
1) It helps discover new facts and develop new techniques to cure diseases, keep people alive longer, and improve quality of life.
2) Research is necessary to find causes of diseases, develop new treatments through clinical trials, and create diagnostic tests for early detection.
3) Many modern medical advances like vaccines, blood pressure medications, and transplant surgery resulted from past medical studies.
This document discusses publication ethics and best practices for publishing research. It outlines what constitutes a good journal for publication, including being peer-reviewed and indexed in databases. It also warns about fake journal metrics and bogus journals. The document covers responsibilities of authors such as originality, transparency and retracting work if needed. Various forms of research misconduct like falsification, fabrication and plagiarism are described. Finally, the roles and responsibilities of editors, journal owners, publishers and reviewers are mentioned.
Dr. Sarika Sawant presented on research ethics at a seminar. She discussed the definition of research ethics as regulating scientific activity to protect human participants and serve societal interests. She covered objectives like ensuring consent and oversight. Issues discussed included plagiarism, data handling, and research with humans and animals. National guidelines in India were also presented, as well as UNESCO's ethical guidelines focusing on informed consent, confidentiality, and integrity.
This document provides an overview of ethics in research. It defines ethics and discusses key historical events that shaped modern research ethics like the Nazi experiments and the Nuremberg Code. The three primary ethical principles of beneficence, respect for human dignity, and justice are examined. Informed consent, risks/benefits analysis, and the role of institutional review boards in ensuring ethical research are covered. Challenges in vulnerable populations and qualitative/mixed methods research are also summarized.
The document discusses the background and definition of research ethics. It defines ethics as norms for conduct that distinguish acceptable from unacceptable behavior. Research ethics refers to rules that define proper conduct for researchers and are aimed at protecting human subjects. The history of modern research ethics is traced back to unethical medical experiments conducted by Nazi doctors during World War 2, which led to the Nuremberg Code establishing ethical principles for research involving human subjects. Other influential documents discussed include the Helsinki Declaration, Belmont Report, and controversies like the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.
The document provides an overview of the history of research ethics and key events that led to the establishment of ethical guidelines and regulations. It discusses scandals such as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and experiments conducted by Nazi Germany. These events prompted milestones like the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and Belmont Report. The Belmont Report outlines basic ethical principles including respect for persons, beneficence, and justice that provide a framework for resolving issues in human subjects research.
This document discusses research ethics. It defines ethics and research ethics, and explains the importance of ethics in promoting valid research, building trust, and accountability. Key stakeholders in research like participants, researchers, funding agencies are discussed. Important ethical issues related to participants include informed consent, privacy and preventing harm. Ethical issues for researchers include honesty, objectivity, and appropriate methodology. Ethical issues for funders include restricting research and potential misuse of findings. The conclusion emphasizes balancing these issues, following guidelines, and acting ethically despite challenges to uphold scientific integrity.
Research ethics involves applying ethical principles to scientific research involving human subjects. The objectives of research ethics are to protect human participants, ensure research benefits society, and ensure research is conducted ethically. Key principles include minimizing harm, obtaining informed consent, protecting anonymity and confidentiality, avoiding misleading practices, and allowing participants to withdraw. Research ethics promotes trust, accountability, and social values in research. However, research poses risks of physical, psychological, social, and economic harm to participants. It may also divert resources from other health needs.
This is a presentation I gave to the Research Coordinators in the Federal Ministry of Health, Sudan (04.03.2015).
It included the following topics:
• Overview on the Knowledge Management Cycle and how research fits in it
• Brief historical background on research ethics
• What makes research ethical?
• Definition and examples of scientific misconduct
• How to make your research ethical and avoid scientific misconduct?
This document discusses research ethics and the ethical issues involved in conducting research. It outlines three approaches to ethics: universal moral code, individual conscience, and weighing costs and benefits. It identifies three stakeholders in research: participants, researchers, and funding bodies. The document then examines several ethical issues concerning research participants, such as obtaining informed consent, avoiding harm, maintaining confidentiality and anonymity of data. It also discusses ethical responsibilities of researchers, such as avoiding bias and misuse of data, and of funding bodies, such as not imposing restrictions or misusing data.
Here are the key points about informed consent:
- It is a process, not just a form. Researchers must ensure participants understand what participation involves through clear verbal and written explanations.
- Consent forms should be written in plain, easy-to-understand language appropriate for the population.
- Participants must be able to refuse or withdraw from the study without penalty.
- Risks and limitations of confidentiality should be clearly explained.
- Participants should have the opportunity to ask questions to fully comprehend what they are consenting to.
- Informed consent is an ongoing process, not a single event, with the option for participants to withdraw later.
The goal is to respect participants' autonomy by
I explain plainly what is salami silcing, a practice of fragmenting single research into as many publications as possible. Salami publishing and hazards
The document discusses research ethics and identifies important ethical principles to consider during the research process, including when developing the research problem, question, and design, collecting and analyzing data, and disseminating results. It highlights historical examples of unethical research like the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Key principles that must be respected include informed consent, minimizing harm, respecting participants, and maintaining integrity. Researchers should obtain ethics approval and consult their institutional review board if they have any ethical questions or concerns.
This document discusses ethics in medical research. It begins by outlining the lesson objectives which are to explain ethics, describe important historical events related to research ethics, list important guidelines, describe informed consent, and describe the role of institutional ethics committees. It then discusses the definition of ethics, important historical incidents like the Nuremberg trials, Thalidomide tragedy, and Tuskegee syphilis experiment. It also describes key documents that outline research ethics guidelines like the Nuremberg Code, Helsinki Declaration, ICH Guidelines, and ICMR Guidelines. It concludes by explaining informed consent and the responsibilities of institutional ethics committees in research.
Publication ethics: Definitions, Introduction and ImportanceVasantha Raju N
The document provides an overview of publication ethics and discusses its importance. It defines publication ethics as the principles and standards associated with publishing scientific research results. This includes giving proper credit and authorship, avoiding plagiarism and duplicate publication, managing conflicts of interest, and not falsifying or fabricating research data. The document highlights various unethical practices like plagiarism, gift authorship, and predatory journals. It also discusses guidelines from organizations like COPE, ICMJE and reporting standards to promote ethical research practices.
This document discusses ethics in research. It defines ethics and research ethics, covering honesty and respect for participants. It provides examples of unethical historical studies that harmed participants. Key ethics documents are summarized, including the Nuremberg Code, Belmont Report, and Institutional Review Board guidelines around informed consent, risks/benefits, confidentiality, and voluntary participation. The document also discusses issues like deception, errors versus fraud, plagiarism, and misleading data presentation.
This document discusses various qualitative research methods for collecting and analyzing data. It describes qualitative research as focusing on collecting narrative and visual non-numerical data to understand a phenomenon of interest. It then outlines several common qualitative research approaches like grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology, narrative research, case studies and the types of data collection methods used in each approach such as interviews, observations, focus groups and document analysis. Finally, it discusses the process of analyzing qualitative data which typically involves preparing, organizing, coding and categorizing the data to identify themes and patterns.
Philosophy of ethics and Publication ethics paleeri
This document discusses philosophy, ethics, and publication ethics. It defines philosophy as the study of truth, knowledge, values and reality. Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with morality and right versus wrong. There are three main branches of ethics: meta ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. Publication ethics provides guidelines for ethical publishing practices, including avoiding plagiarism, fabrication of data, and ensuring proper attribution of authors. Upholding publication ethics is important to maintain integrity and prevent misconduct in academic publishing.
This document discusses research misconduct and issues of reproducibility. It defines research misconduct as fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism. While science aims to be self-correcting, many published findings are not reproducible or trustworthy. Several factors make results less likely to be true, such as small studies, small effect sizes, and conflicts of interest. Efforts are underway to improve reproducibility through replicating studies, publishing negative results, and establishing standards for transparent and ethical research.
The Presentation will take the reader through various ethical issues in biomedical research. It covers topics like The Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, Declaration of Geneva, selected code and regulations that guide research with human subjects, etc.
General Ethics.ppthghhgghhgghfddddghhhgjhhKennyjrLMunisi
This document provides an overview of the history of research ethics and the development of guidelines and codes to protect human subjects. It discusses early events that sparked ethics reforms, such as the 1900 Prussian Directive in response to non-consensual human experiments. It also covers the unethical Nazi experiments, the Nuremberg Code, the Declaration of Helsinki, and the Belmont Report. The document outlines several international guidelines that now govern health research, including the CIOMS guidelines and ICH GCP, and emphasizes the global adoption of principles like respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
This presentation explores the origin of good Clinical Practice, Need of GCP. Principals of Good Clinical Practices. Its a ICH guideline E6.This presentation is very useful to prepare for interviews in the field of Clinical Research.
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The document discusses the history and ethical principles of human subjects research. It begins with the Nuremberg Code established after World War II to protect human subjects from abusive medical experiments. The three main ethical principles outlined in the Belmont Report are respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. The document then provides definitions of human subjects research and the levels of IRB review from exempt to expedited to full committee. It discusses considerations for vulnerable populations and risks of research. Informed consent is an ongoing process rather than a single event.
The document summarizes key historical events in medical research ethics and the development of protections for human subjects. It describes atrocities like the Nazi experiments and Tuskegee Syphilis Study that lacked informed consent. This led to regulations like the Nuremberg Code and Belmont Report, which established ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. The Belmont Report specifically aimed to provide guidelines for research ethics through its principles and considerations for informed consent, risk-benefit assessments, and fair subject selection.
This document provides a historical overview of the development of research ethics. It discusses early expressions like the Hippocratic Oath. Unethical experiments on humans without consent like those by Dr. Neisser and the Little Albert experiment highlighted the need for standards. The atrocious Nazi human experiments led to the Nuremberg Code. The Declaration of Helsinki addressed clinical research. The unethical Tuskegee Syphilis Study resulted in guidelines like the Belmont Report to protect subjects. Over time, various declarations and guidelines like the Universal Declaration of Bioethics and Human Rights established international standards for ethical research involving human subjects.
This document provides an introduction to medical ethics, including definitions, basic principles, and examples throughout history of unethical medical experiments that violated principles of ethics. It discusses key concepts like beneficence, respect for human dignity, autonomy, justice and informed consent. It summarizes notorious cases of unethical human experimentation like the Lübeck disaster, Dr. J. Marion Sims' experiments on slave women, Nazi human experiments during World War II, and guidelines developed in response like the Nuremberg Code and Declaration of Helsinki to protect human subjects in research.
The Evolution of the Clinical Trials Process – A Brief History LessonPradeep H
The clinical trials process has evolved over centuries as researchers have sought to more rigorously test medical interventions. Some key events include:
1) Early examples from the Bible and 10th century physician Ibn Sina established basic principles like testing on animals first, but trials lacked control groups.
2) In the 18th century, James Lind introduced the use of control groups by comparing scurvy treatments.
3) Randomization was gradually introduced starting in the early 20th century to reduce bias.
4) Post-WWII atrocities led to regulations like the Nuremberg Code to protect human subjects.
5) Government agencies like the FDA were formed to oversee drug development and approval
Ethics in Clinical Research and Historical Perspective of Nazi Trials, Nuremb...ShantanuThakre3
What is Ethics ?
The word ‘ethics’ is derived from the Greek word,
ethos, which means custom or character. Ethics is
the systematic study of values, so as to decide
what is right and what is wrong. Ethics is concerned
with what is good for individuals and society.
What is Clinical Research ?
Clinical Research is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease.
Importance of Ethics in Clinical Research :-
1. Ethics is important in clinical research because it keeps the researcher from committing errors while seeking knowledge and truth.
2. Ethical guidelines for clinical research were formulated only after discovery of inhumane behavior with participants during research experiments.
3. In clinical research human beings are involved, as opposed to animals, atoms or asteroids, as the object of study.
4. It focuses on improving human health and well-being, typically by identifying better methods to treat, cure or prevent illnesses.
5. The Ethics Committee stands as the bridge between the researcher and the ethical guidelines of the country
The document provides an overview of the evolution of good clinical practices from unethical medical experiments and drug trials that occurred in the past. It discusses key events that led to the development of international guidelines like the Declaration of Helsinki and ICH GCP guidelines to protect human subjects. These include the Nazi war crimes trials, Tuskegee syphilis study, Thalidomide disaster, and others. The objective of the ICH GCP guideline is to provide a unified standard across regions to facilitate acceptance of clinical trial data.
History ethical guide lines to clinical trialAnju Thejkumar
The document summarizes the history of ethical guidelines for clinical trials. It discusses several key documents and events that shaped modern research ethics, including the Nuremberg Code established after World War 2 Nazi experiments, the Declaration of Helsinki, Belmont Report, ICH GCP guidelines, and India's Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research in Human Subjects. Overall it provides an overview of the evolution of clinical trial ethics from the 1940s to 2000 to protect human subjects and ensure scientific integrity.
A standard for the design, conduct, performance, monitoring, auditing, recording, analyses, and reporting of clinical trials that provides assurance that the data and reported results are credible and accurate, and that the rights, integrity, and confidentiality of trial subjects are protected.
This document discusses ethical guidelines for conducting research with human subjects. It provides historical context of abuses that led to modern rules. The three principles from the Belmont Report - autonomy, beneficence, and justice - guide ethical research. Key differences between patients receiving treatment and research participants are reviewed, such as differing goals and rights. The roles of institutional review boards and ethics of the informed consent process are explained.
This document discusses ethics in nursing research. It provides an overview and defines key terms like ethics. It then discusses examples of unethical medical experiments conducted in Germany and the US in the past. It outlines the development of ethical codes and guidelines like the Nuremberg Code and Belmont Report. It also covers important aspects of ethical research like informed consent, protecting vulnerable groups, and the nurse researcher's role as an advocate.
2. Lecture on Research Ethics for Epid 2022 (2).pdfAnaolAbebe
This document provides an introduction to health research ethics. It begins with definitions of key terms like ethics, bioethics, and informed consent. It then discusses the historical events that led to modern research ethics guidelines, such as the unethical Nazi experiments and Tuskegee Syphilis study. The document outlines international codes of ethics like the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and Belmont Report. It also discusses ethical principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. The remainder of the document focuses on research ethics guidelines and regulations in Ethiopia, including requirements for research ethics committees, informed consent processes, and protecting vulnerable groups.
The document summarizes the history of clinical research, beginning with some of the earliest recorded clinical trials in the 6th century BC through modern regulations established in the 20th century. It describes key events that shaped ethical standards for clinical research, such as the Nuremberg Code established after Nazi human experimentation in World War II, the thalidomide tragedy of the 1950s, and the Tuskegee syphilis study in the 1930s-1970s which led to new protections in the US with the National Research Act of 1974. Overall, the document traces the evolution of clinical research from early unregulated studies to modern standards of informed consent, institutional review boards, and prioritizing participant safety and welfare.
Unethical human experimentation in the United States - WikiNot Relevant
Unethical human experimentation in the United States included deliberately infecting people with diseases, exposing people to biological and chemical weapons, performing surgical experiments without anesthesia, and injecting people with toxic substances. Many of these experiments were performed on children, prisoners, or the mentally ill without their consent. The experiments were often funded by the U.S. government and military and kept secret for many years, leading to public outcry and congressional investigations when revealed.
Human experimentation has a long history dating back to ancient times. Notable events include the unethical human experiments conducted by Nazi Germany during World War II which led to the development of the Nuremberg Code in 1946. The code established standards for human experimentation including requiring voluntary consent. There are ongoing debates around the ethics of experimentation and whether the potential benefits to society through medical advances justify exposing human subjects to risks. Different types of experiments, such as those involving placebos, fetuses, children, prisoners and blind/double-blind designs, each raise additional complex issues around informed consent and protecting vulnerable populations.
The document discusses human subject research and prisoner experimentation throughout history. It provides definitions of human subject research and discusses some notable examples of unethical experiments, including those done by Nazis on Jews and prisoners of war during World War 2 to test hypothermia and methods of sterilization. It also discusses the Nuremberg Code created after the war to establish ethical guidelines for human testing. The document asks five essential questions about the Geneva Convention, prisoner rights today and in the past, World War 2 tests, and modern human subject research practices.
This document discusses ethics in health research. It provides an overview of the origins and principles of ethics, including teleological and deontological perspectives. It then discusses ethics specifically in the context of health research, including how research must be useful and avoid harm. The document outlines several historical examples of unethical human experimentation, such as the Nazi experiments and Unit 731 tests during WWII. It also discusses international efforts to establish ethical guidelines, including the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and Belmont Report. The core ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, justice, and respect for the environment are covered. Elements of informed consent and protections for vulnerable populations are also summarized.
1. The document discusses preparing a research proposal and provides an overview of the process. It outlines identifying an area of interest, developing a research question and objectives, conducting a literature review, determining study design and methodology, obtaining ethical clearance, acquiring funding, managing the project, collecting and analyzing data, and disseminating findings.
2. Key components of a research proposal are identified as the introduction, justification, literature review, research question/hypotheses, objectives, methodology, budget, timeframe, limitations, and conflicts of interest.
3. The proposal development process involves identifying a problem, reviewing previous studies, formulating a hypothesis, developing a study design and instruments, obtaining necessary approvals, executing the project, analyzing
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1. Research ethics & ethicalResearch ethics & ethical
clearanceclearance
Kantha LankatilakeKantha Lankatilake
Senior LecturerSenior Lecturer
Dept. of Community MedicineDept. of Community Medicine
Faculty of Medicine, ColomboFaculty of Medicine, Colombo
2. EthicsEthics
a set of principles that determine thea set of principles that determine the
right and acceptable conductright and acceptable conduct
Hippocratic OathHippocratic Oath
3. Main principles of the Hippocratic Oath areMain principles of the Hippocratic Oath are
summarised as,summarised as,
do no harmdo no harm
not to assist suicide or administernot to assist suicide or administer
euthanasiaeuthanasia
not to cause abortionnot to cause abortion
to refer patients for specialized treatmentto refer patients for specialized treatment
not to abuse professional relationships,not to abuse professional relationships,
especially for sexual motivesespecially for sexual motives
to maintain patient’s confidenceto maintain patient’s confidence
4. Research ethicsResearch ethics
The application of moral rules and professionalThe application of moral rules and professional
codes of conduct to the collection, analysis,codes of conduct to the collection, analysis,
reporting, and publication of information aboutreporting, and publication of information about
research subjects, in particular active acceptanceresearch subjects, in particular active acceptance
of subjects' right to privacy, confidentiality, andof subjects' right to privacy, confidentiality, and
informed consent.informed consent.
6. Tuskegee Study ( Alabama)Tuskegee Study ( Alabama)
1932 -19721932 -1972
399 poor and mostly illiterate Negro males suffering from399 poor and mostly illiterate Negro males suffering from
Syphilis were studied to observe the natural progression ofSyphilis were studied to observe the natural progression of
the disease.the disease.
The subjects were not told they had syphilis andThe subjects were not told they had syphilis and
consequently they went into infecting many of their wives,consequently they went into infecting many of their wives,
which resulted in 19 of their children being born withwhich resulted in 19 of their children being born with
congenital syphilis.congenital syphilis.
by 1947 penicillin had become the standard treatment forby 1947 penicillin had become the standard treatment for
syphilis. However, the treatment was withheld.syphilis. However, the treatment was withheld.
Plenty of papers were published from this study. EventuallyPlenty of papers were published from this study. Eventually
the study was leaked to the press and the programme wasthe study was leaked to the press and the programme was
terminated.terminated.
7. Nazi human experimentationNazi human experimentation
early 1940’searly 1940’s
Experiments carried out on large numbers ofExperiments carried out on large numbers of
prisoners in concentrated camps by the Germanprisoners in concentrated camps by the German
Nazi regime during World War IINazi regime during World War II
They were forced into participatingThey were forced into participating
Typically, the experiments resulted in death,Typically, the experiments resulted in death,
disfigurement or permanent disability of thedisfigurement or permanent disability of the
subjectssubjects
8. Nazi human experimentationNazi human experimentation
Freezing/hypothermia experiment - 1941Freezing/hypothermia experiment - 1941
Victims troops; healthy Jews/RussiansVictims troops; healthy Jews/Russians
They were usually stripped naked andThey were usually stripped naked and
prepared for the experimentprepared for the experiment
A insulated probe was inserted into theA insulated probe was inserted into the
rectum to measured the drop in therectum to measured the drop in the
body temperaturebody temperature
The victimThe victim put into an air force uniform,
was then placed in the tub of coldwas then placed in the tub of cold
water and started to freezewater and started to freeze
Results: most victims lostResults: most victims lost
consciousness and died (about a 100)consciousness and died (about a 100)
when the body temperature dropped towhen the body temperature dropped to
77 °F (25 °C).
Results of these experiments were published at the 1942 medical conference entitled,
“medical problems arising from sea and winter”.
9. Nazi human experimentationNazi human experimentation
Malaria experiments (1942-1945) – conducted on over
1200 prisoners to test for immunization and treatment of malaria.to test for immunization and treatment of malaria.
Prisoners were infected by mosquitoes or by injections of extracts ofPrisoners were infected by mosquitoes or by injections of extracts of
the mucous glands of female mosquitoes. About a half died of thethe mucous glands of female mosquitoes. About a half died of the
disease and subsequent complications.disease and subsequent complications.
Mustard gas experiments (1939-1945) -Mustard gas experiments (1939-1945) - subjects weresubjects were
deliberately exposed to mustard gas which inflicted severe chemicaldeliberately exposed to mustard gas which inflicted severe chemical
burns . Then they were tested to find the most effective treatment forburns . Then they were tested to find the most effective treatment for
the mustard gas burns.the mustard gas burns.
Sulfonamide experiments (1942-1943) - WoundsWounds
inflicted on the subjects were infected with bacteria, such asinflicted on the subjects were infected with bacteria, such as
Streptococcus, gas gangrene and tetanus.Streptococcus, gas gangrene and tetanus. Blood circulation to theseBlood circulation to these
wounds was interrupted to create a condition similar to that of awounds was interrupted to create a condition similar to that of a
battlefield wound. Infection was aggravated by forcing wood shavingsbattlefield wound. Infection was aggravated by forcing wood shavings
and ground glass into the wounds. The infection was treated withand ground glass into the wounds. The infection was treated with
sulfonamide and other drugs to determine their effectiveness.sulfonamide and other drugs to determine their effectiveness.
10. Aftermath of the experimentationAftermath of the experimentation
Many of the subjects died, many others were murdered afterMany of the subjects died, many others were murdered after
the tests were completed to carryout a post mortem. Thosethe tests were completed to carryout a post mortem. Those
who survived were often left mutilated, suffering permanentwho survived were often left mutilated, suffering permanent
disability, weakened bodies, and mental duress.disability, weakened bodies, and mental duress.
On August 19, 1947, the doctors captured by Allied forcesOn August 19, 1947, the doctors captured by Allied forces
were put on trial in USAwere put on trial in USA –– Doctor’s trialDoctor’s trial.. At the trial, severalAt the trial, several
of the doctors argued in their defense that there was noof the doctors argued in their defense that there was no
international law regarding medical experimentation.international law regarding medical experimentation.
This led to the development of theThis led to the development of the Nuremberg Code ofNuremberg Code of
medical ethics.medical ethics.
11. Nuremberg Code - 1949Nuremberg Code - 1949
The code calls for standards such as,The code calls for standards such as,
voluntary consent of human subjectsvoluntary consent of human subjects
to recognize that the risks must out weigh theto recognize that the risks must out weigh the
expected benefit, and that unnecessary pain andexpected benefit, and that unnecessary pain and
suffering must be avoided.suffering must be avoided.
doctors should avoid actions that injuredoctors should avoid actions that injure
human patients.human patients.
Nuremberg code was updated by WHO as theNuremberg code was updated by WHO as the
Declaration of Helsinki (1964)Declaration of Helsinki (1964)
12. In 1972 with the termination of theIn 1972 with the termination of the Tuskegee Study
The,The, National Commission for the Protection of HumanNational Commission for the Protection of Human
Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral ResearchSubjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research and theand the
National Research ActNational Research Act were established.were established.
The act required the establishment ofThe act required the establishment of Institutional ReviewInstitutional Review
Boards (IRBs)Boards (IRBs)
Special consideration was given to ethnic minorities andSpecial consideration was given to ethnic minorities and
vulnerable groups in the design of clinical studies.vulnerable groups in the design of clinical studies.
13. Codes and GuidelinesCodes and Guidelines
Nuremberg CodeNuremberg Code (1949)(1949)
Declaration Of HelsinkiDeclaration Of Helsinki (1964- 2000)(1964- 2000)
The Belmont ReportThe Belmont Report (1979)(1979)
CIOMS/WHO International GuidelinesCIOMS/WHO International Guidelines (1993, 2002)(1993, 2002)
ICH/GCP-International Conference onICH/GCP-International Conference on
Harmonization- Good Clinical PracticeHarmonization- Good Clinical Practice (1996)(1996)
14. Values that commonly apply to medical ethicsValues that commonly apply to medical ethics
Autonomy - right to refuse or choose their treatmentAutonomy - right to refuse or choose their treatment
Beneficence – the practitioner should act in the bestBeneficence – the practitioner should act in the best
interest of the patientinterest of the patient
Non-maleficence - do no harmNon-maleficence - do no harm
Justice - concerns the distribution of scarce healthJustice - concerns the distribution of scarce health
resources, and the decision of who gets whatresources, and the decision of who gets what
treatment (fairness and equality).treatment (fairness and equality).
Dignity - the patient (and the person treating theDignity - the patient (and the person treating the
patient) have the right to dignity.patient) have the right to dignity.
Truthfulness and honesty - the concept of informedTruthfulness and honesty - the concept of informed
consentconsent
15. The 7 principlesThe 7 principles
that makes clinical research ethicalthat makes clinical research ethical
16. 1. Social value1. Social value
Is this research of any value??Is this research of any value??
why do this research?why do this research?
if not done would the information be missed?if not done would the information be missed?
can the results be generalized?can the results be generalized?
Research has no value when,Research has no value when,
results unlikely to be disseminatedresults unlikely to be disseminated
interventions could never be practically implementedinterventions could never be practically implemented
17. 2. Is this research scientifically valid?2. Is this research scientifically valid?
18. for research to be scientifically valid,for research to be scientifically valid,
clear scientific objectivesclear scientific objectives
design in relation to objectivesdesign in relation to objectives
methodology reliable – produce valid datamethodology reliable – produce valid data
practically feasiblepractically feasible
principal investigators and the otherprincipal investigators and the other
research personnel should be competent.research personnel should be competent.
A socially, clinically, or scientifically useful research question that will
generate useful new knowledge about human health
Research must be conducted in a methodologically rigorous manner.
19. 3. Fair subject selection3. Fair subject selection
JusticeJustice
subject selectionsubject selection –– Selection of subjects for reasons ofSelection of subjects for reasons of
science, related to the purpose of the study, not becausescience, related to the purpose of the study, not because
they are readily available, vulnerable, or otherwise easilythey are readily available, vulnerable, or otherwise easily
exploited, or are favored.exploited, or are favored.
-- select subjects to minimize risks and maximize benefitsselect subjects to minimize risks and maximize benefits
-- have clear inclusion/exclusion criteriahave clear inclusion/exclusion criteria
20. 4. Favorable Risk-Benefit Ratio4. Favorable Risk-Benefit Ratio
for research to be ethical, any risks mustfor research to be ethical, any risks must
be balanced by the benefits to subjectsbe balanced by the benefits to subjects
21. 5. Independent Review5. Independent Review
Minimize conflict of interestMinimize conflict of interest
Public AccountabilityPublic Accountability
Independent review of clinical researchIndependent review of clinical research
ensures the public that investigator biasesensures the public that investigator biases
have not distorted the approach, thathave not distorted the approach, that
ethical requirements have been fulfilled,ethical requirements have been fulfilled,
and that subjects will not be exploited.and that subjects will not be exploited.
23. What is informed consent ?What is informed consent ?
Respect for PersonsRespect for Persons
voluntary decision taken by an individual to
participate in research based on understanding thebased on understanding the
objectives, risks, benefits, and alternatives of theobjectives, risks, benefits, and alternatives of the
research.research.
the principal investigator has responsibility to obtainthe principal investigator has responsibility to obtain
voluntary informed consent (eithervoluntary informed consent (either verbal orverbal or
writtenwritten) from all prospective participants or) from all prospective participants or
in the case of individuals who are not capable ofin the case of individuals who are not capable of
giving informed consent, the permission of theirgiving informed consent, the permission of their
legally authorized guardians (proxy consent).legally authorized guardians (proxy consent).
24. Components of informed consentComponents of informed consent
information sheetinformation sheet
seek consent only after the participant hasseek consent only after the participant has
received and adequately understood allreceived and adequately understood all
necessary information and the consequencesnecessary information and the consequences
of participation as given in the information sheetof participation as given in the information sheet
if written, theif written, the consent formconsent form has to be in all threehas to be in all three
languageslanguages
if written, consent should be obtained byif written, consent should be obtained by
signing on a consent formsigning on a consent form
25. Informed consent contin..Informed consent contin..
Information sheet should contain
Self introduction – from where & who you are;Self introduction – from where & who you are;
purpose of the research;purpose of the research;
description of benefits from participating;description of benefits from participating;
description of risks from participating;description of risks from participating;
details of time commitment required;details of time commitment required;
details of any remuneration;details of any remuneration;
plans to ensure the confidentiality of data;plans to ensure the confidentiality of data;
details about the right to withdraw at any time for any reason;details about the right to withdraw at any time for any reason;
information about how to communicate a decision to withdraw from theinformation about how to communicate a decision to withdraw from the
study;study;
name(s) of investigator(s) contact details.name(s) of investigator(s) contact details.
The wording should suit the individual’s level of understanding
26. 7. Respect for enrolled subjects7. Respect for enrolled subjects
Beneficence and Respect for PersonsBeneficence and Respect for Persons
should be concerned about the wellbeing of the subjectsshould be concerned about the wellbeing of the subjects
as the study proceedsas the study proceeds
assure confidentiality of informationassure confidentiality of information
permitting them to change their mind – withdraw withoutpermitting them to change their mind – withdraw without
penaltypenalty
informed of new information – new risks /treatmentinformed of new information – new risks /treatment
share results of subjectsshare results of subjects
ensure privacyensure privacy
maintain anonymitymaintain anonymity
minimise disruption to workminimise disruption to work
27. As for research ethics, where do we standAs for research ethics, where do we stand
today?today?
Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo was the firstFaculty of Medicine, University of Colombo was the first
institution in Sri Lanka to establish an institutional Ethicsinstitution in Sri Lanka to establish an institutional Ethics
Review Committee, in 1981.Review Committee, in 1981.
In 1991, NARESA drew up a draft code for scientificIn 1991, NARESA drew up a draft code for scientific
research, animal experimentation, biomedical researchresearch, animal experimentation, biomedical research
on humans and social sciences research.on humans and social sciences research.
Since then several organisations such as, SLMA, SLAAS,Since then several organisations such as, SLMA, SLAAS,
Min. of Health, NASTEC, NSF, SLMC have set up theirMin. of Health, NASTEC, NSF, SLMC have set up their
own institutional Ethics Review Committee.own institutional Ethics Review Committee.
Ethical review is mandatory for the presentation andEthical review is mandatory for the presentation and
publication of research.publication of research.
28. Ethics Review Committee, Faculty of MedicineEthics Review Committee, Faculty of Medicine
received renewal of SIDCER/FERCAP Recognitionreceived renewal of SIDCER/FERCAP Recognition
Award for 2012-2016 on 21Award for 2012-2016 on 21stst
November 2012November 2012
"The Strategic Initiative for Developing Capacity in
Ethical Review” (SIDCER) is a network of independently
established regional fora for ethical review committees
29. Process for ethical clearanceProcess for ethical clearance
Ethics Review CommitteeEthics Review Committee
Faculty of MedicineFaculty of Medicine
University of ColomboUniversity of Colombo
30. Submission of application to the ERC/FM-ColomboSubmission of application to the ERC/FM-Colombo
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Ethics Review Committee,Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Ethics Review Committee,
Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, version 3 June 2012Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, version 3 June 2012
Purpose: To describe the overall function and scope of responsibilities of
the ERC
OVERALL FUNCTION of the ERC, FM-ColomboOVERALL FUNCTION of the ERC, FM-Colombo
1. is to protect the mental and physical welfare, rights, dignity and1. is to protect the mental and physical welfare, rights, dignity and
safety of human participants and animals used in research, to facilitatesafety of human participants and animals used in research, to facilitate
ethical research through efficient and effective review and monitoringethical research through efficient and effective review and monitoring
processes, to promote ethical standards of human and animalprocesses, to promote ethical standards of human and animal
research and to review research in accordance with theresearch and to review research in accordance with the Guidelines ofGuidelines of
the Forum of Ethics Review Committees in Sri Lanka (FERCSLthe Forum of Ethics Review Committees in Sri Lanka (FERCSL
Guidelines) and relevant national and international guidelines.Guidelines) and relevant national and international guidelines.
31. SCOPE OF RESPONSIBILITIESSCOPE OF RESPONSIBILITIES
i. To provide independent, competent and timely review and monitoring ofi. To provide independent, competent and timely review and monitoring of
human research projects in respect of their ethical acceptability.human research projects in respect of their ethical acceptability.
ii. To provide ethical oversight, monitoring and advice for human andii. To provide ethical oversight, monitoring and advice for human and
animal research projects.animal research projects.
iii. To prescribe the principles and procedures to govern human researchiii. To prescribe the principles and procedures to govern human research
projects including those involving human tissue and/or personal records.projects including those involving human tissue and/or personal records.
32. Applications received by ERC
Preliminary review
Comments / Requests for
Revision
Allocation of the proposalsRevised/ Ammended
proposal
Regular review
Exempt from ReviewExpedited Review
Executive Committee Send to Reviewers
Decision
Request for Revisions
Approval Approval with conditions
Rejection
Ethical Clearance
Resubmission
Ethics Review Process
Ethics Review Committee, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo
Agreement for the
conditions
Medical ethics are the moral guidelines and ethical laws that help to prioritize a medical professional's work responsibilities. The code of medical ethics outlines the proper conduct between medical professionals and their patients, communities, and colleagues. Each country has a different code of medical ethics, though most contain the same basic principles, and all share the same history of evolution, according to the World Medical Association.
Hippocratic Oath The first basic guideline for medical ethics was introduced during the life of Hippocrates, a classical Greek physician who lived between 460 and 377 BC. Hippocrates' three-word phrase created the first ethical law in the field of medicine. The phrase, now known as the Hippocratic Oath, began as the simple phrase, "Do no harm," and evolved into the 181-word vow recited at modern medical school graduation ceremonies. Read more: The History of Medical Ethics | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_5572014_history-medical-ethics.html#ixzz3jRL53UdC Euthanasia - refers to the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering.
Nazi human experimentation was medical experimentation on large numbers of people by the German Nazi regime in its concentration camps during World War II. These experiments were supposedly designed to help German military personnel in combat situations, and to aid in the recovery of military personnel that had been injured,
A chemical agent that attacks the skin and eyes, mustard gas is one of the best known and most potent chemical weapons. It causes severe blisters
Declaration of Helsinki -is a set of 12 principles adopted by the World Medical Association in 1964 to guide physicians.
enhancements of health or knowledge must be derived from the research;
the research must be methodologically rigorous
unaffiliated individuals must review the research and approve, amend, or terminate it
Informed consent is the process whereby human participants in a research project are provided with all the information needed so that they can decide whether to participate. The elements that must be provided are:
subjects should have their privacy protected, the opportunity to withdraw, and their well-being monitored.