Ujedinjene nacije su proglasile 22. maj za Internacionalni dan biodiverziteta, posvećen razumijevanju značaja i podizanju svijesti javnosti o biodiverzitetu. Datum je odabran u čast dana kada je usvojena Konvencija o biodiverzitetu 1992. godine. Ujedinjene nacije su odredile period 2011.-2020. za Deceniju biodiverziteta.
Biodiverzitet se odnosi na raznovrsnost i promjenljivost života na Zemlji. Predstavlja suštinsku komponentu prirode i osigurava opstanak ljudske vrste pružajući joj hranu, gorivo, sklonište, ljekove i druge resurse. Na bogatstvo biodiverziteta mogu uticati različiti faktori, kao što su klimatski uslovi, način korišćenja zemljišta i zagađenje.
Ujedinjene nacije su proglasile 22. maj za Internacionalni dan biodiverziteta, posvećen razumijevanju značaja i podizanju svijesti javnosti o biodiverzitetu. Datum je odabran u čast dana kada je usvojena Konvencija o biodiverzitetu 1992. godine. Ujedinjene nacije su odredile period 2011.-2020. za Deceniju biodiverziteta.
Biodiverzitet se odnosi na raznovrsnost i promjenljivost života na Zemlji. Predstavlja suštinsku komponentu prirode i osigurava opstanak ljudske vrste pružajući joj hranu, gorivo, sklonište, ljekove i druge resurse. Na bogatstvo biodiverziteta mogu uticati različiti faktori, kao što su klimatski uslovi, način korišćenja zemljišta i zagađenje.
"Cipela na kraju sveta" - prezentacija, roman nagrađen priznanjem Politikino...MilanStankovic19
"Cipela na kraju sveta" je samo naizgled roman za decu, pažljiviji citalac uočiće mnoge elemente koji ga približavaju savremenoj prozi za odrasle. To je priča sa uokvirenom fabulom. I jedna od njenih glavnih poruka je da novac jeste važan, ali ne sme biti baš jedini smisao života...
L136 - Biologija - Ćelijske organele - Jelena Stojanović - Barbara JovčićNašaŠkola.Net
L136 - Biologija - Ćelijske organele - Jelena Stojanović - Barbara Jovčić
Takmičenje na portalu www.nasaskola.net
"biramo najbolju lekciju"
februar 2012. godine,
tema,
predmet,
učenika,
nastavnik,
Gimnazija Aleksinac
"Cipela na kraju sveta" - prezentacija, roman nagrađen priznanjem Politikino...MilanStankovic19
"Cipela na kraju sveta" je samo naizgled roman za decu, pažljiviji citalac uočiće mnoge elemente koji ga približavaju savremenoj prozi za odrasle. To je priča sa uokvirenom fabulom. I jedna od njenih glavnih poruka je da novac jeste važan, ali ne sme biti baš jedini smisao života...
L136 - Biologija - Ćelijske organele - Jelena Stojanović - Barbara JovčićNašaŠkola.Net
L136 - Biologija - Ćelijske organele - Jelena Stojanović - Barbara Jovčić
Takmičenje na portalu www.nasaskola.net
"biramo najbolju lekciju"
februar 2012. godine,
tema,
predmet,
učenika,
nastavnik,
Gimnazija Aleksinac
Tetrodotoxin is a potent neurotoxin found in marine animals like pufferfish. It blocks sodium channels, preventing action potentials and paralyzing neurons and muscles. Poisoning symptoms range from numbness to respiratory failure and death. The toxin is produced by various bacteria in marine life. While rare, poisoning is more common where pufferfish is regularly consumed. There is no antidote, so treatment focuses on supportive care and monitoring until the toxin is cleared from the body.
1) The Sgarbossa criteria provide guidelines for diagnosing acute myocardial infarction in patients with left bundle branch block (LBB) or ventricular paced rhythm on electrocardiogram (ECG), as these conditions can obscure ECG changes.
2) The original Sgarbossa criteria included three criteria involving concordant or discordant ST segment changes greater than 1mm. The modified criteria expanded this to include proportionally excessive discordant ST elevation.
3) Different types of STEMI are described based on the location of maximal ST elevation, including anterior, inferior, lateral, posterior, and right ventricular STEMI, each with characteristic ECG patterns.
This document discusses interventricular conduction delay and raised intracranial pressure as seen on electrocardiograms (ECGs). It defines interventricular conduction delay and lists various causes including fascicular blocks, bundle branch blocks, ventricular hypertrophy, dilatation, electrolyte abnormalities, toxins, pre-excitation, and arrhythmogenic cardiac conditions. It then discusses raised intracranial pressure and the associated ECG findings of widespread T-wave inversions, QT prolongation, and bradycardia as part of the Cushing reflex, indicating imminent brainstem herniation. Massive intracranial hemorrhages such as subarachnoid hemorrhage are the most common causes
The document discusses various electrolyte abnormalities and their ECG manifestations, including hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia, hyperkalemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesia, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and hypothermia. For each condition, it provides the normal and abnormal ranges for the electrolyte levels and describes the associated ECG changes such as peaked T waves, QT prolongation, low QRS voltage, bradycardia, and arrhythmias. The document serves as a reference for clinicians to recognize ECG patterns caused by electrolyte and endocrine abnormalities.
1) Fascicular ventricular tachycardia is the most common form of idiopathic ventricular tachycardia originating from the left ventricle. It typically presents in young patients without structural heart disease.
2) It has characteristic ECG features including a monomorphic ventricular rhythm with fusion complexes and AV dissociation. The QRS duration is between 100-140 ms with a short RS interval of 60-80 ms. It also shows a right bundle branch block pattern and axis deviation.
3) Posterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia, which arises near the left posterior fascicle, shows a right bundle branch block pattern with left axis deviation. Anterior fascicular ventricular tachycardia arises
The document discusses several electrocardiogram (ECG) findings and rhythms including ectopic atrial tachycardia, atrial tachycardia, electrical alternans seen in massive pericardial effusion which produces low QRS voltage, electrical alternans and tachycardia, escape rhythms like junctional escape rhythms where the pacemaker rate decreases down the conducting system, and ventricular escape rhythms. It also discusses the terminology of junctional rhythms and includes literature references.
The document discusses De Winter's T waves, which are characterized by three key findings on ECG: upsloping ST depression in precordial leads, tall symmetric T waves in precordial leads, and ST elevation in aVR. It also summarizes the ECG patterns seen in dextrocardia, including right axis deviation, positive complexes in aVR, and dominant S waves in precordial leads. Finally, it outlines the ECG features of digoxin effect and toxicity, such as biphasic T waves, shortened QT, and the dysrhythmia of supraventricular tachycardia with a slow ventricular response seen in digoxin toxicity.
Massive carbamazepine overdose of more than 50 mg/kg can cause cardiotoxicity due to sodium channel blockade, which may be detectable on ECG as subtle QRS widening or first-degree AV block. Dilated cardiomyopathy is characterized by ventricular dilatation and reduced ejection fraction below 40%, commonly presenting with symptoms of biventricular failure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can cause prominent P waves in inferior leads, exaggerated ST segments, low QRS voltage especially in V4-V6, and may show an SV1-SV2-SV3 pattern.
- Benign early repolarization shows concave ST elevation less than 2 mm with no progression over time, most prominent in V2-V5. Notching at the J-point and concordant T-waves are also seen.
- Beta-blocker and calcium channel blocker toxicity can cause prolonged PR interval and bradycardia. Propranolol toxicity specifically causes QRS widening and positive R' wave in aVR. Sotalol toxicity causes QT prolongation and risk of Torsades de Pointes.
- Bifascicular block is a combination of right bundle branch block with either left anterior or posterior fascicular block, and can be caused by ischemia, hypertension or other
This document discusses atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT). It states that AVNRT is the most common cause of palpitations in structurally normal hearts. It can occur spontaneously or be provoked. There are three main types - slow-fast AVNRT which is most common and shows no visible P waves, fast-slow AVNRT where P waves are visible after the QRS, and slow-slow AVNRT where P waves appear before the QRS. The tachycardia rate is typically between 140-280 beats per minute and is regular. AVNRT occurs due to a reentry circuit within the atrioventricular node.
This document summarizes different types of atrioventricular (AV) blocks seen on electrocardiograms (ECGs). It describes first-degree AV block as a PR interval over 200ms. Second-degree AV block, Mobitz type I (Wenckebach phenomenon) shows progressive PR prolongation until a blocked pulse. Mobitz type II shows intermittent non-conducted pulses without PR prolongation. High-grade second-degree AV block has a P:QRS ratio of 3:1 or higher, with an extremely slow ventricular rate. Third-degree or complete heart block shows no relationship between atrial and ventricular rates. Causes include myocardial infarction, drugs, and conduction system disease. Treatment ranges from
This document provides an overview of several cardiac arrhythmias and conditions including:
1. Accelerated idioventricular rhythm (AIVR), which results when an ectopic ventricular pacemaker exceeds the sinus node rate. AIVR is seen post-myocardial infarction and features a regular rhythm between 50-110 bpm with three or more QRS complexes.
2. Atrial flutter, a supraventricular tachycardia caused by a reentry circuit in the right atrium with a rate of around 300 bpm. The ventricular rate is determined by AV conduction.
3. Atrial fibrillation, the most common sustained arrhythmia characterized by irregularly irregular rhythm without
1) Cardiorenal syndrome commonly occurs in patients with acute decompensated heart failure and is associated with poor outcomes. It involves a complex interaction between hemodynamic alterations and activation of neurohormonal systems that affects both the heart and kidneys.
2) There are five types of cardiorenal syndrome classified based on the inciting cardiac or renal event and the affected secondary organs. Type 1 is acute cardiorenal syndrome due to acute worsening of cardiac function leading to kidney injury.
3) Loop diuretics are the mainstay of treatment for congestion in heart failure but aggressive diuresis may worsen kidney function. Other therapies discussed include inotropic agents, vasopressin antagonists
Categorization of risks and benefits (food additives)Domina Petric
The document discusses various categories of risks associated with food, including foodborne hazards of microbial origin, nutritional hazards, environmental contaminants, naturally occurring toxicants, and food additives. It notes that foodborne diseases of microbial origin pose the greatest risks. Nutritional hazards can arise from deficiencies or excesses. Environmental contaminants can enter the food supply from industrial or natural sources. Naturally occurring toxicants are found in some foods. Food additives present minimal risks when consumed within permitted levels. The document also outlines categories of potential benefits from foods, including health benefits, supply benefits, hedonic benefits, and convenience benefits.
This document discusses the benefits and risks of food additives. The benefits include making foods safer, more nutritious, and longer lasting through the use of preservatives and antioxidants. Additives also provide greater variety of foods and lower prices. However, there are also risks. There is a lack of data on the long term health effects of combinations of additives. Some additives are associated with "junk foods" that are low in nutrients. While direct toxic effects are unlikely at legal levels, some individuals may have hypersensitivity reactions. Some animal studies also indicate potential cancer and reproductive issues, but no direct evidence in humans. The risks must be weighed against the benefits on a case by case basis.
The document discusses different types of food additives and how they are classified. It describes preservatives like antimicrobials, antioxidants and antibrowning agents. Nutritional additives add vitamins, minerals and fiber. Coloring agents and flavors are used to enhance appearance and taste. Texturizing agents modify texture and mouthfeel. Additives are identified by International Numbering System codes or E numbers from the European Union.
Effector phase in immune mediated drug hypersensitivityDomina Petric
This document discusses antibody-mediated and T cell-mediated drug hypersensitivity. It describes how drugs can act as haptens and stimulate T and B cell responses, leading to IgE production and immediate hypersensitivity reactions. It also discusses the p-i concept where drugs can directly interact with T cell receptors and cause reactions without prior sensitization, particularly in the skin which contains many resident immune cells.
1. Small molecule drugs can become immunogenic by undergoing bioactivation into chemically reactive metabolites that covalently bind to proteins, forming hapten-carrier complexes.
2. These complexes are then processed and presented by antigen presenting cells to T cells, stimulating an adaptive immune response.
3. Whether a humoral or cellular immune response develops depends on which proteins are modified by the hapten and whether they are soluble or cell-bound.
2. Epispadija
Dorzalni rascjep mokraćne cijevi u dječaka ili
djevojčica.
Vanjsko ušće mokraćne cijevi se može nalaziti
u visini korone glandis i proksimalnije sve do
vrata mjehura.
Može postojati kao posebna anomalija ili se
javiti uz druge anomalije razvoja
infraumbilikalnog dijela prednje trbušne
stijenke.
Često se nalazi uz ekstrofiju mokraćnog
mjehura.
Prema Campbellu, javlja se 1:100 000
novorođenčadi.
4 je puta češća u dječaka.
3. Epispadija
Kao izolirana anomalija, sastoji se od dorzalne
dislokacije meatusa mokraćne cijevi.
Meatus se nalazi na prednjoj strani glansa ili
korpusa penisa ili u penoskrotalnome kutu.
Tipovi epispadije u djevojčica:
prošireni meatus, dražica rascijepljena
skraćena mokraćna cijev sa širokim
meatusom
kompletni oblik: inkontinencija jer rascjep
zahvaća i unutarnji sfinkter (prijelazni oblik iz
epispadije u ekstrofiju mjehura)
4. Klinička slika
U dječaka epispadični penis je kratak, zakrivljen
prema gore i priljubljen uz trbušnu stijenku
pubične regije.
Glans je rascijepljen i plosnat, a kavernozna tijela
su razmaknuta.
Ispod uretralne sluznice nalazi se uzdužna vezivna
tvorba koja se prema desno i lijevo pruža te
obuhvaća kavernozna tijela (korda).
Kod blažih oblika, pubične kosti su normalno
razvijene.
Kod penilnog i penopubičnog tipa, pubične kosti
su široko razmaknute i povezane fibroznim
5. Klinička slika
Ako je cijela mokraćna cijev
rascijepljena, javlja se
inkontinencija mokraće.
Retencija testisa je rijetka u
blažim oblicima epispadije.
6. Liječenje
Inkontinencija mokraće je kriterij težine bolesti.
U dječaka se operacija sastoji od:
elongacije penisa
ispravljanja dorzalne zakrivljenosti penisa
Kod težih oblika, potrebno je rekonstruirati vrat
mjehura i približiti razmaknute dijelove
rascijepljenog unutarnjeg sfinktera.
U djevojčica s blažim oblicima, nije potrebna
kirurška korekcija.
Rekonstrukcija se radi kod jačih rascjepa dražice.
Kod težih oblika, radi se rekonstrukcija rascjepa
mokraćne cijevi i vrata mjehura.
8. Hipospadija
Kongenitalna anomalija.
Vanjsko ušće mokraćne cijevi se ne nalazi
na vrhu glansa, nego negdje s volarne
strane između vrha glansa i perineuma.
1:500 rođenih dječaka
U ženskog spola, hipospadija je
abnormalno smješteno vanjsko ušće
mokraćne cijevi u prednjoj stijenci rodnice,
od djevičnjaka sve do vrata mjehura.
9. Tipovi hipospadije
balaničke hipospadije s meatusom ispod
vrha glansa ili u koronarnome sulkusu
distalne penilne hipospadije s meatusom u
distalnoj trećini penisa
medijalne penilne hipospadije s meatusom
u sredini tijela penisa
penoskrotalni oblici s otvorom mokraćne
cijevi na bazi penisa
skrotalni i perinealni oblici
12. Liječenje
Materijali za
rekonstrukciju mokraćne
cijevi:
koža koja se nalazi u
blizini lezije
slobodni režnjevi
bukalne sluznice
slobodni režnjevi
sluznice mokraćnog
mjehura
Danas se uglavno rade
operacije u 1 aktu.
www.hypospadiasfoundation.com
14. Procjena uspjeha liječenja
Kriteriji su:
kvaliteta mlaza mokraće
izgled penisa u erekciji
mogućnost ejakulacije
kozmetski učinak operacije
psihološki status bolesnika
15. Prepucij
Fimoza je suženi otvor prepucija.
Kod kongenitalnih oblika prepucij je
hipertrofičan.
Kod stečenog oblika koža prepucija je ožiljno
promijenjena od ranijih upala.
Kod novorođenčadi i dojenčadi postoji
fiziološka fimoza (symphisis preputii,
pseudophymosis).
U većine dječaka spontano ljuštenje prepucija
počinje oko prve godine života.
Potrebno ga je manualnom lizom potpuno
dovršiti, tj. odvojiti prepucij od glansa.
16. Patološka fimoza
Postoji suženje otvora prepucija koji je upalno
promijenjen i edematozan.
Kroz suženi otvor prepucija cijedi se gnojni
sadržaj.
Krvarenje iz prepucija je rijetko.
Smetnje mokrenja su uobičajene.
U većini slučajeva dovoljno je stavljanje
obloga od antiseptičkih otopina, možda
uzimanje antibiotika.
Kasnije je indicirana cirkumcizija.
18. Parafimoza
Stanje kad se prepucij ne može
vratiti preko glansa, pogotovo kad
je otvor prepucija uži.
Česta je pojava u starijih dječaka ili
nastaje kad roditelji sami obavljaju
lizu prepucija u djeteta.
Potrebno je hitno učiniti manualnu
repoziciju, a katkada i dorzalnu
inciziju u općoj anesteziji.
19. Drugi entiteti
Cista prepucija je prava retencijska cista.
Nužna je enukleacija.
Postojanje difuznih lezija je indikacija za
primjenu cirkumcizije.
Megaprepucij je kongenitalna velika vreća
prepucija koja se povećava za vrijeme
mokrenja, dok mokraća kapa na suženi
otvor prepucija.
Očituje se u prvoj godini života.
Potrebna je cirkumcizija.
20. Cirkumcizija
Cirkumcizija je kirurški zahvat smanjenja
viška prepucija.
Rutinska se radi zbog prevencije
mokraćnih infekcija, a medicinski
indicirana se radi zbog fimoze.
Rane komplikacije cirkumcizije su, u 2-5 %
operiranih dječaka, retencija mokraće i
krvarenje.
Mnogo su češće komplikacije infekcije
ogoljenog glansa.