Electron Transport Chain
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This document discusses cellular metabolism, including energy transformation through metabolic pathways. It covers: 1) Metabolism involves catabolic pathways that generate ATP through the breakdown of molecules, and anabolic pathways that use ATP to synthesize biologically important molecules. 2) Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering their activation energy. They are protein catalysts that participate in reactions without being consumed. 3) Metabolic pathways involve a series of coupled enzyme-catalyzed reactions that either release or store energy by converting molecules into higher or lower energy states. This facilitates cellular work and biosynthesis.
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- Coenzymes are non-protein molecules like vitamins that help enzymes catalyze reactions by binding to them.
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This document discusses key concepts around biochemical processes and enzymes. It defines metabolism as thousands of chemical reactions in organisms that give off heat depending on metabolic rate. Catabolic reactions break down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy. Anabolic reactions join atoms and molecules to build complex structures and require energy. Reactions are controlled by biochemical pathways using enzymes. Mitochondria produce ATP through energy-releasing reactions. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions using specific active sites without being used up in the process. Factors like pH, temperature, enzyme and substrate concentrations can affect enzyme activity.
L4 Enzymes_c0ce65815f13d03a89ba6bc6e59f7ab4.pptx
Catalase is an enzyme that catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water. Hydrogen peroxide is a harmful byproduct produced through normal metabolic processes. Catalase works at its optimum temperature of 37°C to quickly convert hydrogen peroxide before it can cause damage. If the temperature is increased above 100°C, catalase activity and the reaction rate would decrease due to enzyme denaturation at high temperatures.
Enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules that facilitate chemical reactions in cells. They lower the activation energy of reactions, acting as catalysts. The enzyme binds to the substrate at its active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex. This allows the reaction to proceed more easily. Enzyme activity is optimized at specific temperatures, pH levels, and substrate concentrations. It can be inhibited by chemicals that bind to the active site or induce structural changes in the enzyme.
Enzymes bph
Enzymes are protein catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions without being consumed. They achieve this by lowering the activation energy of reactions and stabilizing transition states. Enzymes require cofactors like metal ions or organic coenzymes to function. The active site of an enzyme binds specifically to substrates to catalyze reactions. Many factors influence enzyme activity, such as temperature, pH, substrate and product concentration.
all about Enzymes 1234567891011121314.ppt
Enzymes are biomolecules that catalyze chemical reactions by lowering their activation energy. They speed up reactions without being used up. Enzymes have an active site where substrates bind and reactions occur. The Michaelis-Menten equation describes enzyme kinetics and defines terms like Km and Vmax. Enzyme activity is affected by factors like temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and inhibitors. Regulation occurs through competitive and allosteric inhibition or covalent modification like phosphorylation.
Enzyme
Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in biological systems by lowering their activation energy. They work by specifically binding substrates and orienting them in a way that facilitates reaction. Enzymes achieve this using functional groups on their amino acids to destabilize bonds in the substrate. They are also able to transfer electrons, add/remove hydrogen ions, and induce a shape change in the substrate. Enzymes have an active site that only fits a specific substrate and they can catalyze thousands of reactions per second through a cyclic process. Some enzymes require cofactors like coenzymes or ions to function and their activity can be regulated through competitive or non-competitive inhibition, feedback inhibition, or allosteric regulation
Enzymes
Here are the comparisons requested:
Noncompetitive inhibition vs allosteric inhibition:
- Both involve binding at a site other than the active site
- However, noncompetitive inhibition directly alters the active site conformation, while allosteric inhibition induces a conformational change through binding at a distant allosteric site
Allosteric activation vs cooperativity:
- Both amplify the enzyme's response to substrates by inducing favorable conformational changes
- However, allosteric activation involves binding of an activator at an allosteric site, while cooperativity occurs through substrate binding and involves interactions between subunits rather than an allosteric effector
So in summary, noncompetitive vs allosteric inhibition compare different
brief description on enzymes and biological catalysis
Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions in living systems. They do this by lowering the activation energy of reactions, allowing reactions to proceed more quickly and reach equilibrium. Enzymes achieve catalysis through two key mechanisms - ground state destabilization and transition state stabilization - which involve interactions between the enzyme's active site and the substrate. The rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions depends on factors like temperature, pH, and substrate concentration, following characteristic kinetic patterns like Michaelis-Menten kinetics.
Enzymes dr.khushbu
This document provides information on enzymes, including their structure, function, classification, and regulation. It defines enzymes as biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions without undergoing permanent change. Enzymes are classified according to the type of chemical reaction they catalyze using the Enzyme Commission system with four digit codes. Enzyme activity can be regulated through various mechanisms including allosteric regulation, covalent modification, proteolytic cleavage, and induction/repression of enzyme synthesis.
Energy and Organisms
Thie presentation focuses on major biological concepts from Chapter 2 of BSCB Blue: A Molecular Approach
Enzymes Updated 2023.pptx
1. Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts and speed up chemical reactions in living organisms without being consumed in the process.
2. Each enzyme has a unique three-dimensional structure with an active site that allows only specific substrates to bind, undergo chemical changes, and produce unique products before being released.
3. Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy needed, allowing reactions to proceed more quickly and efficiently at normal body temperatures. The rate of enzyme reactions is affected by factors like temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and inhibitors.
Metabolism Presentation 2016
Cells require constant energy to maintain their internal organization and carry out metabolic reactions. This energy is primarily derived from food and is transformed and stored in ATP molecules, which act as the "energy currency" of cells. Enzymes catalyze metabolic reactions and help minimize energy loss. The chloroplasts and mitochondria work together to transfer energy from sunlight through photosynthesis into cellular respiration to power the energy needs of organisms.
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions by lowering their activation energy. They are mostly proteins and are not used up in the reactions they catalyze. Enzymes can catalyze both anabolic reactions that build up complex molecules and catabolic reactions that break down complex molecules. They are classified based on the type of reaction they catalyze such as hydrolases, oxidoreductases, transferases, lyases, isomerases, and ligases. Enzyme activity is affected by factors like temperature, pH, and substrate and enzyme concentrations, with most enzymes having an optimal temperature and pH at which their activity is highest before they become irreversibly denatured.
Energy And Enzymes Notes New
This document discusses chemical reactions and energy transfer in living systems. Chemical reactions break down some substances and form new ones. Reactions require energy to occur and some release energy. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up reactions and allow them to happen at lower temperatures. ATP stores and transfers energy within cells by breaking its high-energy bonds and reforming them.
Similar to Electron Transport Chain (20)
2024_Chapter_4_Edited_Cellular_Metabolism_and_Metabolic_Disorders (4).pptx
2024_Chapter_4_Edited_Cellular_Metabolism_and_Metabolic_Disorders (4).pptx
brief description on enzymes and biological catalysis
brief description on enzymes and biological catalysis
More from raj kumar
The umbilical cord
The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta and measures approximately 50 cm in length and 2 cm in diameter at term. It contains one vein that carries oxygenated blood to the fetus and two arteries that carry deoxygenated blood away. The cord inserts into the placenta near its center in most cases. Abnormalities can include abnormal insertion points, short or long length, knots, torsion, hematoma, or having a single umbilical artery instead of two.
The placenta
The placenta develops from fetal and maternal tissues to function as the respiratory, nutritive, excretory, barrier and endocrine organ of pregnancy. It transfers oxygen, nutrients and waste between the mother and fetus. The placenta can develop abnormalities in its shape, size, position or adhesion to the uterine wall which may cause complications like preterm birth or hemorrhage. Placental lesions like infarcts may also occur due to conditions like hypertension.
The foetal membranes
The document discusses the fetal membranes, which include the chorion and amnion. The chorion is the outer membrane that is attached to the placenta and uterine wall. The amnion lines the chorion and encloses the fetus and amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid provides protection and nutrition for the fetus, and aids in temperature regulation and movement. It is composed primarily of water, carbohydrates, proteins and minerals. The amniotic fluid circulates continuously, with production from the fetal membranes, fetal urine and transudation from maternal and fetal blood.
Physiology of reproduction
The document summarizes the key stages in human reproduction from fertilization through early pregnancy development. It describes how sperm mature and are capacitated in the female reproductive tract. Upon ovulation, sperm meet and fertilize the ovum in the fallopian tubes. The zygote then undergoes cell division and develops into a blastocyst that implants in the uterus. The trophoblast cells of the blastocyst invade the uterine lining and develop into a placenta to exchange nutrients and waste with the mother's blood. Major developmental milestones in early pregnancy include chorion, amnion and decidua formation.
Minor complaints during pregnancy
The document discusses several minor complaints that may occur during pregnancy, including gingivitis, ptyalism, heartburn, constipation, hemorrhoids, varicosities, dyspnea, urinary symptoms, leucorrhea, leg cramps, paraethesia, and backache. For each complaint, the causes and recommended treatments are provided.
Diagnosis of pregnancy
This document discusses the diagnosis of pregnancy over three trimesters. In the first trimester, common symptoms include missed periods, morning sickness, frequent urination, and breast changes. Signs include enlarged, soft breasts and uterus, and a softer, purplish cervix. Pregnancy tests detect human chorionic gonadotropin in urine or blood. Ultrasounds can visualize the gestational sac after 4-5 weeks. In the second trimester, symptoms decrease while the abdomen enlarges and fetal movement is felt. Signs include skin changes and palpable fetal parts. The third trimester confirms pregnancy through palpation of fetal parts and auscultation of the fetal heart.
Antenatal care
Antenatal care involves regular checkups during pregnancy to monitor the health of the mother and baby. Checkups include exams, tests, and education on nutrition, exercise, hygiene, warning signs and avoiding risks. The goals are to prevent or treat complications, detect issues, and ensure healthy development. Women receive more frequent exams as their due date approaches, and are instructed on a nutritious diet, moderate exercise, adequate rest, hygienic practices, and when to seek medical help if problems arise.
Postpartum mood disorders
The document discusses postpartum mood disorders, including prevalence, risk factors, screening tools, diagnosis, and treatment options. It notes that postpartum mood disorders range from mild and temporary postpartum blues to more severe postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis. Screening tools like the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale can help identify at-risk women. Treatment involves psychosocial therapies and may include antidepressant medication depending on severity. A multidisciplinary approach is important to address biological, psychological and social factors.
Normal and abnormal puerperium
Uterine fibroids are benign smooth muscle tumors that develop in the uterus. They are the most common solid pelvic tumors, affecting 20-25% of women during their reproductive years. Fibroids can vary in size and location, and may cause heavy menstrual bleeding, pelvic pressure or pain. Treatment options include observation, medical therapy to reduce estrogen levels, or surgical removal of fibroids.
Version
Version refers to changing the fetal lie or position in the uterus. There are three main types: external cephalic version, internal podalic version, and bipolar podalic version. External cephalic version involves manipulating the fetus externally to convert a breech presentation to head-first. Internal podalic version is performed under anesthesia when the cervix is fully dilated to grasp the fetus's feet and convert a transverse lie to breech. Bipolar podalic version uses both internal and external manipulation through a partially dilated cervix for special circumstances. Complications can include fetal distress, premature separation of the placenta, and maternal hemorrhage.
Vacuum extraction (ventouse)
Vacuum extraction is a method to assist in childbirth using suction from a cup placed on the baby's head to help with traction during contractions. There are different types of cups including metal, soft, and bird's cups. Vacuum extraction is indicated when forceps cannot be used and has advantages over forceps like less need for anesthesia and less compression force applied. Complications can include maternal lacerations and cervical injuries or fetal issues like cephalhematomas and scalp lacerations.
Symphysiotomy
Symphysiotomy is a surgical procedure that divides the symphysis pubis bone to widen the pelvis during childbirth. It is indicated when cephalopelvic disproportion makes vaginal delivery difficult or dangerous but cesarean section is not available or advised. The procedure involves making a small incision above the pubic bone and gradually separating the joint using a scalpel. Complications can include bleeding, injury to nearby organs, infection, and long-term issues like incontinence or an unstable pelvis.
Forceps delivery
This document discusses obstetric forceps, which are metal instruments used to extract a baby's head during delivery. It describes different types of forceps and their proper application techniques. Forceps are indicated for prolonged second stage of labor, maternal distress, or fetal distress. Correct application involves inserting one blade along each side of the baby's head. Potential complications include laceration, hemorrhage, nerve injury, or problems for the baby such as skull fractures. Failure to deliver with forceps may require removal and assessment to determine if cesarean section is needed.
Episiotomy
This document discusses episiotomy, which is an incision made in the perineum during childbirth to widen the vaginal opening. It can help prevent tearing and complications. The two main types are median and mediolateral episiotomies. Median episiotomies involve a midline incision while mediolateral incisions extend laterally towards the ischial tuberosity. Episiotomies are usually performed when the vaginal opening is distended during crowning to prevent stretching injuries. They are sutured closed after delivery.
Caesarean section
The document discusses Caesarean section, including indications, types, procedure, complications, and mode of delivery in subsequent pregnancies. A Caesarean section is a surgical procedure to deliver one or more babies through incisions in the abdomen and uterus. The rate of Caesarean sections has increased from 5% in 1970 to 25% in 1990 due to factors such as abandoning difficult procedures in favor of C-sections and increased use for breech births. Complications can include hemorrhage, infections, and injuries to the mother or baby.
Normal labour
Normal labour involves the spontaneous expulsion of a single, mature fetus through the birth canal within 3-18 hours without complications. It occurs when hormonal and mechanical factors cause the cervix to efface and dilate in stages from 3cm to full 10cm dilation. Labour proceeds through four stages: 1) cervical dilation, 2) expulsion of the fetus, 3) expulsion of the placenta, and 4) recovery. The fetus descends through the birth canal with increased flexion to facilitate delivery of the head.
Anatomy of the foetal skull
The fetal skull consists of three parts: the vault, face, and base. The vault is made up of the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones which are separated by sutures. The face extends from the chin to the nose. Fontanelles are soft spots located where sutures meet which are important for assessing fetal position and flexion. The skull has various longitudinal and transverse diameters used to determine which will engage and pass through the birth canal during delivery.
Anatomy of the female pelvis
The female pelvis is divided into the false pelvis and true pelvis. The true pelvis is further divided into the pelvic inlet, cavity, and outlet. The document describes the boundaries and diameters of each region including the anatomical transverse diameter of 13cm at the inlet. It also discusses the pelvic planes and axes, and the Caldwell-Moloy classification of pelvic types including the gynaecoid, anthropoid, android, and platypelloid pelvis.
Active management of normal labour
This document outlines the active management of normal labour in 4 stages: antenatal preparation, first stage (history, exam, procedures), second stage (delivery of baby), third stage (delivery of placenta), and fourth stage (postpartum care of mother and baby). The goal is a healthy delivery with minimal effects. Key procedures include monitoring contractions/fetal heart with a partogram, positioning, nutrition, analgesia, perineal support, and immediate newborn care.
Thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy
Thyrotoxicosis in pregnancy can cause complications like abortion and preterm labour. Clinical features include weight loss, heat intolerance, tremors, and fast heart rate. It is treated with antithyroid drugs like propylthiouracil or carbimazole. Epilepsy in pregnancy commonly presents as grand mal seizures, which are treated with phenobarbitone or phenytoin along with folic acid. Rhesus isoimmunization occurs when an Rh-negative mother develops antibodies against Rh-positive blood from her baby. It can be prevented by giving the mother anti-D immunoglobulin after delivery or pregnancy events involving blood transfer from baby to mother. Affected babies may require monitoring, phot
More from raj kumar (20)
Electron Transport Chain
- 3. Energy (E) Transfer Overview Figure 4-1
- 4. Potential Energy Kinetic Energy WORK heat (~ 70% of energy used in physical exercise)
- 8. Activation Energy Fig 4-3
- 9. Endo- and Exergonic Reactions Which is which?? ATP + H 2 O ADP + P i + H + + Energy
- 12. Enzymes lower activation energy: All chemical reactions in body must be conducted at body temp.!! How do enzymes lower activation energy ?
- 16. Enzyme-substrate interaction: The old and the new model Lock and Key: Induced fit:
- 22. 2) Cofactors & Coenzymes structure: Inorganic molecules (?) function: conformational change of active site structure: Organic molecules (vitamin derivatives, FADH 2 ....) function: act as receptors & carriers for atoms or functional groups that are removed from substrate
- 23. Cofactors bind to active site
- 24. 3) Breakage of intramolecular bonds lead to ?
- 26. 3)
- 30. Reaction Rate Depends on Enzyme & Substrate Concentration
- 31. Reversible Reactions follow the Law of Mass Action
- 34. ?
- 35. Metabolism Catabolism Anabolism next time
Editor's Notes
- Troponin I and T are structural components of cardiac muscle. They are released into the bloodstream with myocardial injury. They are highly specific for myocardial injury--more so than CK-MB--and help to exclude elevations of CK with skeletal muscle trauma. Troponins will begin to increase following MI within 3 to 12 hours, about the same time frame as CK-MB. However, the rate of rise for early infarction may not be as dramatic as for CK-MB. Troponins will remain elevated longer than CK--up to 5 to 9 days for troponin I and up to 2 weeks for troponin T. This makes troponins a superior marker for diagnosing myocardial infarction in the recent past--better than lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). However, this continued elevation has the disadvantage of making it more difficult to diagnose reinfarction or
- (LDH) Lactate dehydrogenase - Total LDH will begin to rise 2 to 5 days after an MI; the elevation can last 10 days. 140-280 U/L Normal Adult Range: 0 - 250 U/L Optimal Adult Reading: 125
- This can be tested by looking at Siamese cats that have been left outdoors over winter (all black), or raised in very hot climates (all white). Of course you can also put boots on the cats and get cats with white stockings, or tape down their ears and get white ears.