This document discusses the concept of learning styles and critiques their use in education. It provides an overview of different learning style models and notes there are over 70 models described in the literature. However, the document argues that learning styles have not been shown to meaningfully impact learning or teaching and notes several problems with the theoretical and empirical validity of most learning style models. While learning styles may be useful for self-reflection and discussion, the document concludes they should not be used to differentiate instruction or materials for students due to a lack of evidence supporting their effectiveness.

1. eSTEeM
exploring the frontiers of STEM education
Educational concepts:
“learning styles”
Elizabeth FitzGerald (née Brown)
e.j.fitzgerald@open.ac.uk
Institute of Educational Technology

2. What’s the idea behind learning styles?
• Different people have different ways of learning
• If we teach in a way that’s consistent with a
student’s learning style, he/she should learn
better
• Lots of different models; reports from Coffield et
al 2004 mentions over 70 – analyses 13 in detail
• Best known is VAK
(visual – auditory – kinaesthetic/tactile)

3. How did it come about?
• Aim to improve student/employee learning and
performance
• Idea that we can provide differentiation in a more
sophisticated way than ability or prior knowledge
(i.e. streaming/beginners-intermediate-advanced)
• Impetus by government to develop the necessary
attitudes and skills for lifelong learning, particularly in
relation to ‘learning to learn’ and self-supported study
• Increased availability and use of multimedia resources
has helped

4. Examples of learning styles
Reflector Activist
Theorist Pragmatist

5. Learning styles
• Visualiser/imager vs. verbaliser
• Global vs. sequential
• Reflector/reflective vs. activist/impulsive
• Convergers vs. divergers
• Pragmatist vs. theorist
• Field dependence vs. field independence
• Concrete vs. abstract
• Left brain vs. right brain

6. Learning style models
• Dunn + Dunn
• MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Inventory)
• Kolb’s experiential model / Honey + Mumford
• Riding's CSA (Cognitive Styles Analysis)
• Herrmann's brain dominance theory
• Multiple intelligences (7 or 9?)
• Biggs SPQ (Surface Processing Questionnaire)
• Field dependence vs field independence
• VAKT (Visual/Auditory/Kinaesthetic/Tactile)
• Wholist/holist vs analytic
Which is “best” and how should it be used?

7. Example of use
• Research into personalised e-learning,
matching user’s learning style profile with
course resources/materials appropriate to
that style
• Classroom teaching geared towards particular
‘types’ of learning (or groups of learners)
• Sometimes used for aptitude tests or for
career planning

8. Positive aspects of using learning styles
(the ‘pros’)
• We’ll come back to this in a bit…

9. Problems with learning styles (the ‘cons’)
• They don’t really work… (yup, none of them)
• Theoretical incoherence and conceptual confusion
• Temporal instability of preferred ‘style’
• The danger of labelling students
• The variable quality of learning style models
(reliability; validity; consistency)
• Unwarranted faith placed in simple inventories
• No clear implications for pedagogy
• Low effect size; Hawthorne effect; problems with bias
• The reality of commercial gain

10. Distribution of visual/verbal learning style
preferences in 10-11 year old children
14
12
Number of pupils
10 Time 1
Time 2
8
6
4
2
0
11 9 7 5 3 1 -1 -3 -5 -7 -9 -11
Learning style
visual verbal

11. Distribution of sequential/global learning style
preferences in 10-11 year old children
18
16
Time 1
14
Number of pupils
Time 2
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
11 9 7 5 3 1 -1 -3 -5 -7 -9 -11
Learning style
sequential global

12. (Hattie 1999, taken from Coffield et al, 2004)

13. Positive aspects of using learning styles
(yes, there are some!)
• Self-awareness and metacognition: increase
self-development by talking about different
models but also their relative strengths and
weaknesses
• Help learners play to their strengths but also
help their development as a good all-rounder
• A way to engage in dialogue about learning
and new/alternative forms of support and
personalisation
 increased motivational effect on students

14. Take-home message
• Learning styles, if they do exist, are not useful as a
means of individualising or differentiating
learning/teaching materials for students
• The models used are highly variable in quality and
most are highly flawed (methodologically,
scientifically, pedagogically, theoretically etc.)
• Even if they did work, the effect size is very small
• They might be useful for encouraging students to
engage in metacognition and dialogue around
learning

15. In your class there is a serialist pragmatist kinaesthetic learner (who is
also field-dependent, not to mention his MBTI), primarily a
convergent thinker, high on logico-mathematical intelligence but low
on linguistic intelligence, working in a pair with another student who
is a holist, reflector, primarily visual and field-independent... who is
also chronically shy (no-one mentions that).
Even assuming that such things can be assessed with some validity
and reliability, which is itself far from clear — what are you going to
do about it? There are, after all, thirty other students on the course,
each of whom could be described in similar terms. Two-thirds of them
are female and one-third male (two of whom are gay).
Five of the class are from ethnic minorities, two are dyslexic, one is
visually impaired, and three are clinically depressed (although only
one of them knows it). Six are "mature" students — at least, they are
chronologically over 25.

17. References
• Brown, E. J.; Brailsford, T. J.; Fisher, T. and Moore, A. (2009). Evaluating
learning style personalization in adaptive systems: quantitative methods
and approaches. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies (Special Issue
on Personalization) 2(1) pp. 10–22. http://oro.open.ac.uk/30224/
• Brown, E. J. (2008) PhD thesis: The Use of Learning Styles in Adaptive
Hypermedia. http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/577/
• Coffield, F., D. Moseley, E. Hall and K. Ecclestone (2004) Learning styles and
pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. Learning &
Skills Research Centre.
https://crm.lsnlearning.org.uk/user/order.aspx?code=041543
• Coffield, F., D. Moseley, E. Hall and K. Ecclestone (2004) Should we be using
learning styles? What research has to say to practice. Learning & Skills
Research Centre.
https://crm.lsnlearning.org.uk/user/order.aspx?code=041540
• YouTube video: “Learning Styles Don't Exist” (Prof. Daniel Willingham:
http://tinyurl.com/esteem-ls (7 mins long)