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ecological interactions.pptx
- 1. Ecological Interactions at variousTrophic Levels Prepared by, Anakha Mariya Jacob 21PBOT2476 1st year M.Sc Botany
- 2.
- 3. Significance of Ecological Interactions •Pollination • Seed dispersal • Biocontrol of pests • Maintenance of ecosystem stability • Extinction • Conservation of flagship and keystone species • Nitrogen fixation • Minimize livestock loss (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.186d69cd498d246f253f166e8fadb534?rik=g5oHJ3KRDbfkew&riu=http%3a%2f%2ftreesforlife.org.uk%2fdocs%2f079_403__bm_redsquirrel_041_1432827675_standard.jpg&ehk=QKd8jPz%2bHw92dLYD5b1TR%2fTwtTB8SIv1A32PQfDbhso%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRa w&r=0), (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4a65453654b6d0427f7f83fe766b4114?rik=dMUt2Y5XUV5LPw&riu=http%3a%2f%2f2.bp.blogspot.com%2f_6CGtXcavSuo%2fTHmS8JSmm3I%2fAAAAAAAAATs%2f5T- PGTjznz0%2fs1600%2fmycorrhiza%2bimage.jpg&ehk=oo%2bLjIpWFd0q%2bX2DpsLfE4TJSQBgW7VPosbSfK%2b0gys%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1),(https://image8.photobiz.com/8671/36_20200701103522_4535266_large.jpg), https://ml2eimdcbmzd.i.optimole.com/VUlt wHI.BPGM~5336f/w:785/h:554/q:auto/https://pestlockdown.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/the-pros-and-cons-of-biocontrol- e1590734359318.jpg),, (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.0c488fb5f197cdb4147fbe3d02d75a20?rik=hTeBxZe1Rt1GjA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fpollinatorpartners.ksdot.org%2fimages%2fHummingbird2.png&ehk=g8%2bgnxoWdQ%2fkhdRhqU8MvRo8qKprON7oSrfSO%2fEFNgU%3d&risl=&pid=ImgR aw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1)
- 4. Interspecific & Intraspecific Interactions (https://tostpost.com/images/2018-Mar/18/94f210cc09b07b46ec73f57f5ad54423/1.jpg,https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Intraspecific- competition.jpg,https://images.theconversation.com/files/184298/original/file-20170901-21670-11fijf3.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip)
- 5.
- 6. Classification of EcologicalInteractions Ecological Interactions Positive Interactions Facilitatation Neutral Interactions Negative Interactions Competition Predation Herbivory Parasitism (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.5cb8 1d7ee02610bbd1f925433d528cb9 ?rik=pcBtSDHzw5mOag&riu=http %3a%2f%2fzoo- web02.zoo.ox.ac.uk%2fgroup%2f west%2fpics%2ffig.jpg&ehk=6VG0 kUvmHDU7cGslyuxrXXSb4K7G58u h17ivn1XPG6w%3d&risl=&pid=Im gRaw&r=0, https://image.slidesha recdn.com/competition- 130804220946- phpapp02/95/ecology- competition-lesson-powerpoint- competitive-exclusion-55- 638.jpg?cb=1398589594) , https:/ /th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.deUWT4t 30llAlbWxupaoHAHaEz?pid=ImgD et&rs=1, https://www.iamexpat.d e/sites/default/files/styles/article --full/public/mosquito-outbreak- expected-germany-after-ideal- spring.jpg?itok=Xv6OnIeA)
- 7. Facilitation • Beneficial toat least one species. • More common under Environmental stress. Facilitation Mutualism Dispersive mutualism Defensive mutualism Resource-based mutualism Commensalism Inquilinism Phoresy Metabiosis (https://aquariumbreeder.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Clibanarius-tricolor-Blue-Leg-Hermit-Crab-logo-by-Breo- 1024x683.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.7b928e7039fb73dc65a59264148d8aa1?rik=B7Uww1Abx5vYIA&riu=http%3a%2f%2f1.bp.blogspot.com %2f- i6Z8qyRFp8U%2fUfmCdpHEmII%2fAAAAAAAADTc%2fZ47cc1E9irQ%2fs1600%2fHummingbirdAlbinoBuddleia2%5bcrop%5d.jpg&ehk=FTruOe23CE q6vFoowZJ7lIqIyFQU5mxe7Sm6ycZQMno%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1, https://www.differencebetween.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/06/Difference-Between-Epiphytes-and-Parasites-1.jpg, https://live.staticflickr.com/896/29084659018_eb9720f5f5.jpg)
- 8. Facultative & ObligateMutualism (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.a589e1b38c324e5d5a539664bae9fbd1?rik=Tq1N8ZbZ5zo8Yg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fcdn.arstechnica.net%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f09%2fmegacephala5-XL- 800x546.jpg&ehk=kYB2lS%2fssw0NIA%2bzBWlM3rBkuLo3jszyR5Wihzj7QvQ%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0, https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.tnicpWUj9EikxywK6WsRaQHaHp?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)
- 9. Mutualism • Both speciesare benefited. 1. Dispersive mutualism Plants+ Pollinators Plants+ Fruit eaters (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.d9ca1af922442edc4e6898ab9e9a9a1e?rik=wDH1wVAPw6HjBg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fi0.wp.com%2fboingboing.net%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2015%2f07%2f05-pollen-dappled-bat- 670.jpg&ehk=5uoTOaSXzEHG57dIsEbyHftTFcdq1OUczTDwGKbBY4w%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0,https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.t_z8GEgfu9_1jjdEDjR8vgHaE8?pid=ImgDet&rs=1, https://st2.depositphotos.com/2106449/9081/i/950/depositphotos_90811726-stock-photo-squirrel-eating-a-red-fig.jpg,https://www.quietvillagelandscaping.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Green-8.png)
- 10. Pollination Syndromes • Resultfrom coevolution Animal Features Coevolved flower features Bees • Color vision includes UV, not red • Good sense of smell. • Require nectar and pollen • Often blue, purple, yellow, white( not red colors) • Fragrant • Provide nectar and abundant pollen Butterflies • Good color vision • Sense odors with feet • Need landing space • Feed with long tubular tongue • Blue, purple, deep pink, orange, red colours • Light floral scent • Provide landing space • Nectar in deep, narrow flora tubes
- 11. Birds • Color vision,includes red • Poor sense of smell • Feed in daytime • High nectar requirement • Often colored red • Strong, damage resistant structure • No fragrance • Open in daytime • Copious nectar in floral tubes Bats • • Color blind • Good sense of smell • Active at night • High food requirements • Often require perch • White or light, reflective colors • strong odors • open at night • copious nectar and pollen provided • Pendulous or borne on tree trunks
- 12. Cheating in Pollination Calopogonpulchellus Pogonia ophioglossoides Ophrys apifera Bombus bees (https://s3.amazonaws.com/eit-planttoolbox-prod/media/images/Calopogon_pulchellus-Inflorescence-Charles_Wohlers-CC_BY-NC-ND_2.0.jpg, https://specialvegetation.com/wp- content/uploads/2020/11/Pogonia_ophioglossoides_Orchi_01.jpg, https://live.staticflickr.com/2821/33876269276_a886326ee3_b.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.fd9615ed98c6eaf2bba126b14e0df8fa?rik=rq%2bS2UkT%2fY5R1w&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.orchidspecies.com%2forphotdir%2f ophyapifera.jpg&ehk=MZRY48TBJJaXb2CbgWO0wtBv5f%2bSH302CaE%2fhyg2U74%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
- 13. Invasive mutualism Promote populationgrowth of weed and pose management problems. (https://garden.org/pics/2015-03-25/Metrosideros/7cef75.jpg) (https://shop.cramersblommor.com/images/zoom/alstroeme riaaureaorangeking.jpg)
- 14. Mutualism Disruption Hypothesis Maianthemumracemosum Alliaria petiolata (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.mjJ5b- QuLiFYzSAvuIG4iAHaLJ?pid=ImgDet&rs=1, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.b4e89c59b53f4f586fa15e5c4231f6e2?rik=jdJ19JdEOTsy1g&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wnmu.edu%2facademic%2fnspages%2fgilaflora%2fm _racemosum3.jpg&ehk=Iu%2faqiu5rSr4aqTb3KoZKVC1QnMkEKJk%2bmcvcDn16Hk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
- 15. Seed dispersal systemsof plants (https://agriculturegoods.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/pacu_fish-788x591.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.959021ffb8f40664dc7c3449f4f3a333?rik=nWyhGBNq nNJhJg&riu=http%3a%2f%2f1.bp.blogspot.com%2f-i6yo1ZFIH3I%2fUVN21- UhW8I%2fAAAAAAAAC0E%2fZEWiFRCINfo%2fs1600%2fEgyptianFruitBat2.jpg&ehk =1A3JJqp988zjuTa%2bDUdsM6%2btEmbupoycFgdXcbTz0LY%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRa w&r=0) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.6b4d03015ca21bd8c32ca6f5ce899a3f?rik=U%2fGAXMzt uNUThA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fhomeforaday.org%2fgallery%2fbirds%2fsongbirds%2fw axwings%2fbohemian%2fbohemian_12_wp.jpg&ehk=W7z4JRd9hwW97ywYv3Q5z8n5 ICYhCAI8y4pzI60%2fvr8%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://cdn.imgbin.com/13/12/3/imgbin-ant-insect-biological-dispersal-seed-dispersal-ants- H1uEN2ac8A68bwZTMCYdA477N.jpg)
- 16. Mistletoes & Passerinebirds (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Daniel-Nickrent/publication/228017178/figure/fig2/AS:288968630390786@1445906898941/Representatives-of-the-five-mistletoe-clades-a-Misodendrum-brachystachyum_Q640.jpg)
- 17. Cheating in SeedDispersal (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.be63b34dab503607259628f51b6e0d18?rik=WkGySlCOSahhNQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2ffiles.growingpr oduce.com%2fgrowingproduce%2fwp- content%2fuploads%2f2017%2f12%2fBacterial_soft_rot_pepper.jpg&ehk=bIUoBLpUHd%2bLDAgTY3sRY4PsjTwKXczh0uefdDYKq KM%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/b/rotten-quince-apple-fruit-tree-monilia-laxa-infestation-plant-disease-monilinia- 223979753.jpg)
- 18. Defensive Mutualism • Ants &Aphids • Pseudomyrmex ferruginea & Acacia cornigera • Festuca rubra & Acremonium sp. https://c1.staticflickr.com/7/6004/5917674016_6ae845719a_b.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.cbad32f53c69573d7966530d6efc5763?rik=lpA6I7tjViBUcA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.bogleech.com%2fnature%2fant- acacia.jpg&ehk=daTaWCv%2bvQzqlwEvEVaR8Dp15itDD8DVcnPNIu0l%2bdc%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.87910bcdece3ebf56047fac662e3a2fa?rik=0zLaxH8%2fYf1GyA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fdrmgoeswild.com%2fwp- content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f06%2f07-Festuca- rubra.jpg&ehk=E6ZcbHkVPy%2fjE3tnAsadCk7ags6v1PWdjsWma%2fNyHoY%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.88ee59539ea0ce12ca786e8fe45b15df?rik=aYk6s8z2EFbmNQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.scientificlib.com%2fen%2fBiology%2fAnimalia%2fChor data%2fMammalia%2fimages%2fOvisAries1.jpg&ehk=J4IIWLMjGoUmz%2fSvi1sT1GxBdubJx7kd5KBEslhmXgE%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0
- 19. Resource-based Mutualism • Myccorhizae • Leafcutting ants & Fungus producing gongylidia • Corals & Dinoflagellates that live within them (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.veKQdaJupoQQQgLY47GAFwHaFj?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Janice_Lough/publication/235980086/figure/fig4/AS:66 9549233991692@1536644385901/Corals-dinoflagellates-and-coral-bleaching-a-normally- pigmented-corals-Acropora.png) (https://live.staticflickr.com/896/29084659018_eb9720f5f5.jpg)
- 20. • Lichens • Honeyguides& Honey badger • Human beings & Crop plants Resource-based Mutualism (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.RXL27B_EWH5kh-Ob5OPZDAHaFj?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) (https://images.on-this.website/news/11121_2077547198514342530a342.jpg) (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/de/fe/ed/defeedb36f4bceb2924ef988241fb42e.jpg)
- 21. Commensalism • Inquilnism- epiphytes •Phoresy- Flower-inhabiting mites transported by hummingbirds • Metabiosis- Hermit crabs & Snail shells https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8494/8326801724_b9d5fd86ee_b.jpg, https://images.fineartamerica.com/images/artworkimages/mediumlarge/2/hermit-crab-with-green-snail-shell-madagascar-artush-foto.jpg, https://nas-national- prod.s3.amazonaws.com/styles/hero_image/s3/web_mites_3n2a1001.jpg?itok=AKPKqUbJ
- 22. Provider Resource providedand mechanism Beneficiary Pitcher plant Habitat of water pitcher Mosquitoes Cattle Stir up insect food Cattle egrets Sloth Habitat in hair Certain algae (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/0d/07/bd/0d07bd8edd3f61e 793d6e21cddd46410.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.42aff574316590c90c6a0 1f6fead5a37?rik=vNxSbdHag7sXlg&riu=http%3a%2f% 2fu1.ipernity.com%2f21%2f82%2f90%2f12168290.ab 8b3464.560.jpg&ehk=xil6WguCgAcyxELERIAwSnVjqJP 9JPALP%2fnx%2f2NbDUk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r= 0&sres=1&sresct=1) (https://www.naturalhistorymag.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/medium/medi a/2018/03/hovering_mosquitoes_jpg_13961.jpg)
- 23. Whales Habitat, bodysurface Barnacles Anemones protection Clownfish Sea cucumber Habitat Pearl fish (https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/wp- content/uploads/2018/06/pearlfish-1.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.a6iTtgJQYLLC_N0lw8cWowHaDu?pid=ImgDet &rs=1) (https://live.staticflickr.com/2612/5784577319_7bd8be2bf1_ b.jpg)
- 24. Competition • (-,-) or(-,0) • Negative Interaction Exploitation Competition Interference Competition Organisms compete indirectly through consumption of a limited resource, with each obtaining as much as it can. Organisms interact indirectly with one another by physical force or intimidation. Indirect Interaction Direct Interaction Physical force not employed. Physical force ritualized into aggressive behavior. (https://biologydictionary.net/wp- content/uploads/2018/10/Intraspecific-competition.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.OUBmnMBfLlZs7tmp3Ic3xwH aE9?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)
- 25. Amensalism -,0 Asymmetriccompetition Allelopathy e.g., Juglans nigra Chrysanthemoides monilifera & Acacia longifolia (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/58/42/f7/5842f7e28ac72deb 6727a49095a346ad.jpg) (https://www.gardensonline.com.au/Uploads/Plant/4382/Chrysanthemoides-Monilifera- 3.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.ce92b8674590929acb8acdf6a3703b1f?rik=As3ovwmLj2bbF w&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.minnesotawildflowers.info%2fudata%2fr9ndp23q%2fpd3% 2fjuglans-nigra- 1.jpg&ehk=%2bCV9ui9jT49kOSBywrIkW2yLb2F7H82rZ2xykos0VQQ%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRa w&r=0)
- 26. Apparent Competition • Share onenatural enemy. • e.g., Pareloaphostrongylus tenius infection in Alces alces & Odocoileus virginanus (https://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large- 5/moose-alces-alces-bull-in-fall-grand-richard-and-susan- day.jpg) (https://media.sciencephoto.com/image/z9520249/800wm/Z 9520249-White-tailed_Deer_Odocoileus_virginianus_.jpg) (https://i.ytimg.com/vi/Z2xKPioFOyA/maxresdefault.jpg)
- 27. Associational susceptibility • Occur inplants where herbivores spill over from one species onto another. Alsophila pometaria Acer negundo Populus sp. (https://www.plantstoplant.com/Files/71136/Img/07/Populus-purdomii-5-zoom.jpg) (https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/sites/plantid7/files/plantimage/acnef0428A.jpg) (https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8650/16021051616_e2cdf4a257_b.jpg)
- 28. Competitive Exclusion Principle • Proposedby Garrett Hardin(1960). • Species with exactly the same niche cannot occupy the same niche. • Species avoid competition exclusion by, 1. Resource partitioning 2. Size difference
- 29. Ian Kaplan & Robert Denno(2007)- Predictionsbased on Competition Theory Intraspecific competition should be severe than interspecific competition since resource overlap is greater. The strength of interspecific competition is greater between more closely related species or species in similar guild. The strength of interspecific competition increases with decreased resources.
- 30. Predation • Predator +prey • Prey being killed by predator. • +,- • Predator occupies the higher levels of food chains. • plays an important role in maintaining the population size in different communities. https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/b/mantis-10595141.jpg, https://img2.juzaphoto.com/002/shared_files/uploads_hr/1991981_large26010.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.Ra0urKIIoPq0tlvTo38fRQHaEK?pid=ImgDet&rs=1, https://thumbs-prod.si- cdn.com/eYWTo2JKfQmLB6Az5_MbnlhGhMU=/fit-in/1072x0/https://contest-public-media.si-cdn.com/68bdcfe7-2081-410c-b76f-2b4a12a0a968.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.ba49d107f377024037a474676131f73c?rik=7tHZqKMesTy8lg&riu=http%3a%2f%2f3.bp.blogspot.com%2f- QJqLqZjzmKs%2fUu2wudHH-QI%2fAAAAAAAAPFs%2fw0i8TcrimCc%2fs1600%2fEastern_Imperial_Eagle3.jpg&ehk=FZoiNcGfj%2bsFHy%2fORZAE6JnPk1%2bwzZ5xrJYgIgv1lJQ%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0, https://i.imgur.com/jBtGvLA.jpg
- 31. Antipredator Adaptations Sl no. Type ofDefense Examples 1 Chemical with aposematic coloration Bombardier beetles, ladybird beetles, many butterflies 2 Cryptic coloration Grasshoppers, seahorses 3 Batesian mimicry Hoverflies, wasps 4 Mullerian mimicry Hoverflies, wasps 5 Physical defenses Turtle shells, beetle exoskeleton, crab claws, scorpion stingers 6 Intimidation displays Frilled lizards, porcupine fish 7 Predator satiation 13 year & 17 year cicadas
- 32. Chemical Defenses • Stenaptinusinsignis • hydroquinone & hydrogen peroxide- Explosion chamber- hot sprays (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.7e67315bc044ae340b5433ea9f2eae1c?rik=6LSTSEqp6v0PdA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.discovercreation.org %2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f02%2fBombardier- Beetle.jpg&ehk=OHNJv%2fvUaX9nlcODB82Dry8vYdy8%2fUNQBl%2bqZn2t4YM%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://assets.answersingenesis.org/img/articles/am/v15/n1/beetle-chemicals.jpg)
- 33. Aposematic coloration • Advertises unpalatabletaste. • Bright colors of Ladybird beetle • Monarch butterflies caterpillars, Danaus plexippus- cardiac glycosides from milkweed plants (https://www.birdsandblooms.com/wp- content/uploads/2020/08/monarch-swamp-milkweed.jpg) (https://pulpbits.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/monarch-butterfly- caterpillar-and-foodplant-728x546.jpg) (https://www.homestratosphere.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Asian- ladybug-june032019-min.jpg)
- 34. Cryptic Coloration • Anaspect of camouflage • Method of avoiding detection by predators. • Grasshoppers • Leaf wing butterflies • Stick insects • Sea horses (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.2b76a42c09eb9eba6a4a8445b48741ad?rik=%2f7GgJt1hglcbKA &riu=http%3a%2f%2fmysteryfriendships.com%2fillustrations%2fillus_permision%2fstick_ins ect.jpg&ehk=WXGi5JVJwVawJRIni0qG4H3SkBRfs4lE%2fbYtDKtOA%2b8%3d&risl=&pid=ImgR aw&r=0) (https://www.plexuseco.com/EPOW/EPOW-Archive/archive_2006/EPOW- 060626_files/P1050769%20common%20evening%20brown.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c949abdb90c20b41fa2ce973aff3126f?rik=yLbzd7%2bLLxtEoQ &riu=http%3a%2f%2fsmallquarry.weebly.com%2fuploads%2f1%2f6%2f4%2f7%2f1647609 8%2f9289241_orig.jpg&ehk=3NBS9GwtHrg0oOfAgRLmyhezj7fYgh6xlXfm20TLWEI%3d&risl =&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.73f49fcd7c7cab579408aaa00b4f186a?rik=WnR1mDgrXW3H wg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.wetwebmedia.com%2fca%2fvolume_4%2fV4I2%2fhippoca mpus_color2%2f30mustang.jpg&ehk=Im1Dk1e7wV5PfMyzmgtY9uOCd4KsMAXCwvS1R0q8 vJg%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
- 35.
- 36. Physical Defense • Shellsof tortoise & freshwater turtles • Tough exoskeleton of beetles • Venomous stingers of scorpions • Powerful jumping ability of grasshopper • Gliding of flying fish (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/d0/19/4f/d0194fdd04b4a233 f06d28d1e5955606.jpg) (https://whatbugisthat.com/wp- content/uploads/2021/05/WBIT-005-P15.jpg) (https://frontiersinblog.files.wordpress.com/2019/06/frontie rs-in-ecology-and-evolution-scorpion-venom.jpg?w= 940) (https://images.newscientist.com/wp- content/uploads/2020/10/21125020/21-oct_uncrushable- beetle.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.gbleopGmyLYlkTvp70519AHa E8?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)
- 37.
- 38. Predator Satiation • Synchronousproduction of many progeny. • Magicicada sp.( thirteen- & seventeen year old periodical cicadas). (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.6ASj7txUCuEH9cEBLbaARwHaFj?pid=ImgDet&w=750&h=563&rs=1)
- 39. Additional prey defenses PreyDefense Chameleons, Octopus Change color for camouflage Decorator crabs, caterpillars Cover body with debris for camouflage Sea cucumbers Evisceration (https://saveourseas.com/sosf-shark- education-centre/wp- content/uploads/sites/3/decorator-crab- 1791x1280.jpg) (https://cdn.futura- sciences.com/buildsv6/images/ mediumoriginal/6/1/3/613c542 68c_50169209_holothurie- evisceration.jpg) (https://farm9.staticflickr.com/8460 /7888063130_86c7c8642f_b.jpg)
- 40. Camponotus saundersi antsSelf-destruction and spraying poison in all directions Honey bees Vibrate their flight muscles to raise the body temperature to lethal levels Swallowtail butterfly caterpillars Ressemble bird droppings on leaf (https://images.fineartamerica.com/im ages-medium-large-5/giant- swallowtail-caterpillar-doris-potter.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c56841a080a6 7858a2f89b6f3f37112c?rik=eRHLEAfd3n2c4 A&riu=http%3a%2f%2f4.bp.blogspot.com% 2f- EcGx_j2gaBc%2fT0jjbhRxmbI%2fAAAAAAAA De8%2ftdy5DJHt58E%2fs1600%2fCAMPON OTUSSAUNDERSISP0001B01F101r.jpg&ehk= 7QgeS2KgYmoPHdRM5GzpklgbcuLG%2b%2 bl1DeC0cdSnbcY%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r =0)
- 41. Adaptations of Predator- Aggressive mimicry •Crab spiders • Praying mantis • Humback anglerfish, Melanocetus johnsonii • Alligator snapping turtle, Macroshelys temminckii (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.def1eec69b8f968b2a9af848fc3d0f94?rik=x4tAVGq eiJvk1Q&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.terrarium.com.pl%2fgaleria%2ffoto%2f13772 1.jpg&ehk=zJslxYjuVXuUqwxwWmlNftz60Cy3nfZy%2frx6VDf%2b1cs%3d&risl=&p id=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://cdn.ebaumsworld.com/mediaFiles/picture/2260628/84612319.jpg) (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/fd/0c/9a/fd0c9aafc4a146d86 6e138e5e595da19.jpg) (https://live.staticflickr.com/7493/27161337350_11f8501b14 _b.jpg)
- 42. • Female bolasspiders of Mastophora • Female fireflies of Photuris • Saber-toothed blenny, Aspidontus taeniatus • Zone tailed hawk Aggressive mimicry (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.84900a70964c4b17b678a69406454837?rik=gRJughDUz387Fg &riu=http%3a%2f%2ffishesofaustralia.net.au%2fImages%2fImage%2fjournal.pone.005493 9.g001.jpg&ehk=bvKUirzLdYdBWJjvEmYXZploqiTAG9N9BdUnoANc640%3d&risl=&pid=ImgR aw&r=0) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.3DmLVnBFBIIxDQk-c7izTAHaEi?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.a3f02d14aaa892aa7e6c36b0505ecf8d?rik=3wQY5ei0TEUUi w&riu=http%3a%2f%2fil9.picdn.net%2fshutterstock%2fvideos%2f14099453%2fthumb%2 f1.jpg&ehk=%2bBO0fHDptdULsKltcHG%2b5N7ualwZvKhtnG0Qcgq5Bok%3d&risl=&pid=I mgRaw&r=0) (https://spiderbytes.org/wp- content/uploads/2015/03/Mastophora_phrysonomamoremales_MattCoors.jpg.jpg)
- 43.
- 44.
- 45. Herbivory Folivores Frugivores NeactarivoresGranivores Leaf miners Root feeders Bark feeders Gall makers (https://www.neprimateconservan cy.org/uploads/1/5/3/8/15380094/ zanzibar-red-colobus-istock- 535913413-resize_orig.jpg) (https://www.aquaportail.co m/pictures1811/nectarivore- souimanga-malachite- nectarinia-famosa.jpg) (https://senego.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/03/oiseaux- granivores.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c0389549bf c9859aabd64b7f1f4754d2?rik=EdhN96B Wj8OYAw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fplant- pest-advisory.rutgers.edu%2fwp- content%2fuploads%2f2013%2f04%2fDS C_0039.bwlm_.small_- e1365560254619.jpg&ehk=%2fluV7nYs4 ptm47HN%2bO4JQt3B57VtXWHYKLOroF qNrJc%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://morningc hores.com/wp- content/uploads/ 2021/03/root- knot-nematode- on-rice- 600x800.jpg) (https://walkthewilderness.net/wp- content/uploads/2013/08/Elephants- 1104.jpg) (https://uwm.e du/field- station/wp- content/upload s/sites/380/201 8/02/gall- rough-bullet17- 1rz.jpg)
- 46. Plant Defenses againstHerbivory • Constitutive defenses & Induced defenses • Mechanical defenses & Chemical defenses Strategy Example Mechanical defenses Thorns, sticky hairs, silica Chemical defenses Alkaloids, phenolics, terpenoides Mutualisms with defensive agents Bull's horn acacia and ants Associational resistance Purple loosestrife growing next to Myrica Mimic semiochemicals Ecdysteroides mimic insect molting hormone
- 47. Mechanical Defenses • Trichomes • Stickyresins • Thorns • Silica deposits (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.dVzjpFu_Zeat7N_qjPqD6gHaE8?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) (https://www.mississippi-crops.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Blast1.jpg) (https://www.feedipedia.org/sites/default/files/images/karroo_spines_flowers.jpg) (https://populace.tantaluslabs.com/content/images/2019/04/serratus-trichomes.jpg)
- 48. Chemical Defenses • Secondarymetabolites • Second line of defense • Bad smell, bitter taste or toxic Secondary metabolites as chemical defense Nitrogen containing Alkaloids Non-nitrogen containing Phenolics Terpenoids
- 49. Alkaloids • Cyclic ringstructure containig nitrogen • Basic/ Alkaline • Bitter • Unpleasant • 20 classes • Alkaloid-rich plant families are Solanaceae, Papaveraceae, Apocynaceae, and Ranunculaceae.
- 50.
- 51. Phenolics Phenolics Flavonoids Tannins LigninsCoumarins (https://content.api.news/v3/images/bin/97086f708e 4e166ff613ef3565e6814e) (https://www.faidateingiardino.com/wp- content/uploads/2018/12/Camellia-sinensis.jpg)
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- 53.
- 54. Qualitative & Quantitative Defenses (http://cdn2.walkthroughindia.com/wp- content/uploads/2020/02/Cerbera_odollam.jpg) (https://www.ayurtimes.com/wp- content/uploads/2015/05/Atropa-Belladonna-750x430.jpg) (https://img.livestrong.com/630x/photos.demandstudios.com/getty/article/108/140/16 4089709.jpg)(https://www.silvateam.com/en/sites/silvateam.com.en/files/article/silvateam_chestnut_fruit. jpg)
- 55. Apparency Apparent plants Unapparentplants Always apparent to the herbivores Difficult to find Large, long-lived Small, ephemeral Defense mainly quantitative Mainly qualitative Effective against both monophagous and polyphagous herbivores Against polyphagous herbivores e.g., Oak trees e.g., weeds
- 56. Additional Defenses inplants • Mutualistic relationships • Associational resistance • Selective abscission • Specific species-specific plant defenses • Semiochemicals (https://www.flickr.com/photos/yerokuethe/5944411859/in/ gallery-60205174@N04-72157642004247774/) (https://www.plantarium.ru/dat/plants/5/582/459582_8aee 673e.jpg) (https://3.bp.blogspot.com/- 71r7QJXUYPM/U2W8BsIXW8I/AAAAAAAAAHU/QeqQszmykH U/s1600/01-1005.jpg)
- 57. Strategies of herbivoresto overcome Plant Defenses Strategy Example Mechanical adaptation Flat, grinding teeth Behavioural adaptation Feed when plant defenses are lowest Digestive enzymes Mixed function oxidases Microbial symbionts Microbes in stomachs Host manipulation Gall-inducing insects (https://live.staticflickr.com/4885/46675283584_7533625e8e_b.jpg)
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- 60. Parasitism (https://www.cabi.org/isc/portfolio/compendia/normal/116330.img , https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c1a4fc4a10245bae131be229cb3fc1d1?rik=4bp1vLeqiutI %2bw&riu=http%3a%2f%2f3.bp.blogspot.com%2f- XWeWDZ5B9YA%2fUDEl9u3SrUI%2fAAAAAAAAAMg%2fSVJ8PMcZNi8%2fs1600%2fPa rasitism.JPG&ehk=2MEXZS4ca90tgN%2fzXvBY5SlaNNzBAw3l1SherQnmX2g%3d&risl= &pid=ImgRaw&r=0, https://3.bp.blogspot.com/- 96MuNGuG0VQ/V5EjkqfcNRI/AAAAAAAAUUU/V0dtu3XCLmMbwSd- pzYpHG2EUo6WhIs8wCLcB/s1600/horn_parasite.jpg,https://antiguanewsroom.com/ wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Snail-infestation-photo-1.jpg, https://cdn- prod.medicalnewstoday.com/content/images/articles/324/324042/ascaris-worms- emerging-from-the-common-bile-duct-during-surgery-br-image-credit-susana- secretariat-2015- br.jpg, https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.3d5b155536dff5ae441ca1f08f9ba447?rik=mt4X% 2fc3L3pSAvQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2f3.bp.blogspot.com%2f-aEHsEeST- x8%2fU8AeS8Xj6xI%2fAAAAAAAABVE%2fGSgohotPL5g%2fs1600%2fbrood%2bparasit e.jpg&ehk=15O2ipyRYycDYmzU5Nq94Wq2yDcbbYzyD0KOKzN0iR4%3d&risl=&pid=Im gRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1, https://quizizz.com/media/resource/gs/quizizz- media/quizzes/8eb4063f-6d14-4c96-acdf- 97e095a86007, https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2018/08 /iStock_000073298977_Large-ef47d9f.jpg?quality=45&resize=960,413)
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- 63.
- 64. Complex Life Cycleof Macroparasites • Definitive host • Intermediate host • Enslaver parasites E.g., Plagiorhynchus cylindraceus, Dicrocoelium dendritium,Toxoplasma gondii
- 66.
- 67. Brood parasitism • Avian brood parasites-Cuckoos, cowbirds • Mafia hypothesis
- 68.
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