The document provides information on various components of the Earth's surface, including soil types, rocks, landforms, and vegetation. It discusses 5 main soil types (sandy, silty, clay, peaty, saline), along with their characteristics and architectural solutions for building on each soil type. It also outlines 3 types of rocks - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic - and provides examples of each. Additionally, it lists several common landforms and components used to divide the atmosphere.
Erosion is the process of wearing down and moving surface materials from one place to another through the agents of wind, waves, and running water. Water erosion in streams and rivers carries sediments that act like sandpaper to scrape away rocks, while wave action on shorelines produces fine sand on beaches and forms caves and cliffs. Wind erosion occurs in dry areas with little vegetation, carrying sand that rubs against and wears away rock surfaces and creates distinctive landforms.
The document discusses the characteristics of soil profiles. It describes the various soil horizons from O (surface organic layer) to R (bedrock). The major horizons are O, A, E, B, C, and R. Each horizon has distinct properties based on its composition and depth. The document also discusses how soil profiles form over long periods from the interaction of climate, organisms, parent material, and relief in the area. The parent material could be sediments deposited by streams, wind, glaciers or developed from weathered bedrock. Together these factors determine the unique characteristics expressed in each soil profile.
The soil system is a dynamic ecosystem with inputs, outputs, storages and flows. The quality of soil influences the primary productivity of an area. Soil is made up of organic matter, organisms, nutrients, minerals, air and water. It exists in solid, liquid and gas states. Soils take a long time to develop and are considered a non-renewable resource. Soil degradation reduces soil quality and can be caused by erosion, biological degradation, physical degradation and chemical degradation from human activities like agriculture. Conservation efforts aim to reduce erosion, improve soil structure and condition, and promote sustainable land management.
This document defines and describes different types of soil: sandy soil, silty soil, clay soil, and loam. Sandy soil is composed of particles between 2.0-0.05 mm and drains well, making it suitable for crops like watermelon and dairy farming. Silty soil feels smooth and contains particles smaller than sandy soil, providing fertile soil for plant growth. Clay soil exhibits plasticity when wet and becomes firm when dry, supporting crops like lettuce and beans. Loam is an ideal soil composition with equal parts sand, silt, and clay, allowing for moisture retention and air flow to plant roots. The document aims to educate about soil classification and its importance for agriculture and life.
Soil can be separated into 5 main parts: humus, clay, silt, sand, and gravel. A soil profile consists of distinct layers or horizons that vary in organic matter content and depth. The topsoil near the surface (A horizon) contains the most organic matter and nutrients for plant growth. Below this is the subsoil (B horizon) which contains less organic matter. The lowest layers (C horizon) are mostly parent material and provide little for plant growth. Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles that influence characteristics like drainage and water retention.
This document discusses soil conservation in Pakistan. It begins by defining soil and describing Pakistan's soil inventory. It then discusses land capability classes and current land use trends. Some major soil problems in Pakistan are identified as water erosion, wind erosion, salinity, waterlogging, and nutrient deficiencies. Strategies are suggested to address each problem, such as protecting vegetation, controlling grazing, improving drainage, using balanced fertilizers, and protecting agricultural land from urban expansion.
The document discusses soil classification systems including the US Soil Taxonomy system which categorizes soils into Orders, Suborders, Great Groups, and other levels based on distinguishing characteristics. It also describes the major soil types found in Pakistan which are classified regionally as Indus basin soils, Bongar soils, and others. The classification of soils provides important information about their properties and development.
The document discusses soil characteristics including organic content, mineral content, texture, and the soil profile. It defines soil texture as a mixture of sand, silt, and clay particles, with loam being the ideal soil texture. The document also discusses threats to soil such as leaching, where nutrients are washed down through the soil profile with water movement.
Erosion is the process of wearing down and moving surface materials from one place to another through the agents of wind, waves, and running water. Water erosion in streams and rivers carries sediments that act like sandpaper to scrape away rocks, while wave action on shorelines produces fine sand on beaches and forms caves and cliffs. Wind erosion occurs in dry areas with little vegetation, carrying sand that rubs against and wears away rock surfaces and creates distinctive landforms.
The document discusses the characteristics of soil profiles. It describes the various soil horizons from O (surface organic layer) to R (bedrock). The major horizons are O, A, E, B, C, and R. Each horizon has distinct properties based on its composition and depth. The document also discusses how soil profiles form over long periods from the interaction of climate, organisms, parent material, and relief in the area. The parent material could be sediments deposited by streams, wind, glaciers or developed from weathered bedrock. Together these factors determine the unique characteristics expressed in each soil profile.
The soil system is a dynamic ecosystem with inputs, outputs, storages and flows. The quality of soil influences the primary productivity of an area. Soil is made up of organic matter, organisms, nutrients, minerals, air and water. It exists in solid, liquid and gas states. Soils take a long time to develop and are considered a non-renewable resource. Soil degradation reduces soil quality and can be caused by erosion, biological degradation, physical degradation and chemical degradation from human activities like agriculture. Conservation efforts aim to reduce erosion, improve soil structure and condition, and promote sustainable land management.
This document defines and describes different types of soil: sandy soil, silty soil, clay soil, and loam. Sandy soil is composed of particles between 2.0-0.05 mm and drains well, making it suitable for crops like watermelon and dairy farming. Silty soil feels smooth and contains particles smaller than sandy soil, providing fertile soil for plant growth. Clay soil exhibits plasticity when wet and becomes firm when dry, supporting crops like lettuce and beans. Loam is an ideal soil composition with equal parts sand, silt, and clay, allowing for moisture retention and air flow to plant roots. The document aims to educate about soil classification and its importance for agriculture and life.
Soil can be separated into 5 main parts: humus, clay, silt, sand, and gravel. A soil profile consists of distinct layers or horizons that vary in organic matter content and depth. The topsoil near the surface (A horizon) contains the most organic matter and nutrients for plant growth. Below this is the subsoil (B horizon) which contains less organic matter. The lowest layers (C horizon) are mostly parent material and provide little for plant growth. Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles that influence characteristics like drainage and water retention.
This document discusses soil conservation in Pakistan. It begins by defining soil and describing Pakistan's soil inventory. It then discusses land capability classes and current land use trends. Some major soil problems in Pakistan are identified as water erosion, wind erosion, salinity, waterlogging, and nutrient deficiencies. Strategies are suggested to address each problem, such as protecting vegetation, controlling grazing, improving drainage, using balanced fertilizers, and protecting agricultural land from urban expansion.
The document discusses soil classification systems including the US Soil Taxonomy system which categorizes soils into Orders, Suborders, Great Groups, and other levels based on distinguishing characteristics. It also describes the major soil types found in Pakistan which are classified regionally as Indus basin soils, Bongar soils, and others. The classification of soils provides important information about their properties and development.
The document discusses soil characteristics including organic content, mineral content, texture, and the soil profile. It defines soil texture as a mixture of sand, silt, and clay particles, with loam being the ideal soil texture. The document also discusses threats to soil such as leaching, where nutrients are washed down through the soil profile with water movement.
The document discusses the 12 soil orders in the USDA soil taxonomy system. It provides details on the defining properties and global distribution of each order. Entisols are soils of recent origin with little development, while Inceptisols and Alfisols exhibit more development but lack features of other orders. Mollisols are characterized by a thick, dark surface horizon from long-term plant additions. The document provides an overview of each soil order.
the presentation is about, what is soil and what it the components of soil? And major types of soil in south Asia is found. specially in Bangladesh with necessary figure. _Parves Khan
Soil is formed by the weathering and disintegration of rock and accumulation of organic materials. It is classified based on grain size and composition. Three key soil types are sand, silt, and clay. Soil properties like density, water content, and void ratio influence its engineering behavior and are important considerations for construction. The document provides definitions and formulas for calculating various soil properties and indices.
This document discusses different types of soil including sandy soil, clay soil, silty soil, loamy soil, chalky soil, and peaty soil. It describes the characteristics of each soil type and some of the problems associated with each. For example, it notes that sandy soil does not hold water well and nutrients drain quickly through it, while clay soil is difficult for air and water to penetrate, creating problems for plant growth. The document also discusses soil conservation and its importance.
The document summarizes key concepts regarding soil-water-plant relationships. It discusses the constituents of soil and nutrients required for plant growth. It describes soil properties like texture, structure, bulk density and porosity. Different soil types are classified. The importance of water in soil and concepts like soil water potential, matric potential, and soil water release curves are explained. Finer textured soils retain more water than coarse soils at a given tension due to differences in pore size distribution.
This document provides information on soil classification and taxonomy. It describes the major soil orders including Alfisols, Andisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Gelisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Oxisols, Spodosols, Ultisols, and Vertisols. It also outlines the USDA soil taxonomy hierarchy from order down to soil series and explains the distinguishing characteristics used at each level such as diagnostic horizons, physical and chemical properties, texture, and consistence.
This document provides summaries of different soil types found in India:
- Black soil is dark grey to black in color with high clay content. It is found in 5.4 lakh sq km and suitable for cotton.
- Red soil is formed from weathered crystalline rocks. It is more sandy, less clayey, and poor in nutrients. It covers 3.5 lakh sq km.
- Laterite soil is brown to yellowish in color and forms a hard material used for building when exposed to air.
- Desert soil is sandy, porous, and low in nutrients and moisture. It covers 1.4 lakh sq km.
- Mountain soil is rich in humus and found in northeastern
Soil science for teachers (massive-the real dirt on soil)Moira Whitehouse
A very large Slide Show on soil. Useful for anyone without formal earth science training who might need to bone up or teach any aspect of soil. It's huge, 159 slides. It could also be split up into several lessons for students.
This document describes the different types of soil found around the world. It discusses alluvial soil formed by river deposits, black soil which is dark and clay-rich, and red soil formed from weathered rocks. It also outlines mountain soil, desert soil, saline/alkaline soil, peaty/marshy soil, residual soil, marine soil, glacial soil, loamy soil, laterite soil, and aeolian soil transported by wind. The types of soil vary based on their composition, texture, and the environmental factors involved in their formation.
|| A note on soil ||
|| Introduction/Profile of soil ||
|| Characteristics &Types of soil ||
|| Production & Formation of soil ||
|| Properties & classification of soil ||
The document discusses soil water plant relationships and provides details on various topics related to soil properties, water movement and plant water needs. It discusses how soil properties like texture, structure and organic matter determine water holding capacity and infiltration rates. It describes the different types of water in soil like gravitational, capillary and hygroscopic water. Key soil water constants like field capacity, permanent wilting point and available water are explained. Factors affecting water movement like infiltration and factors influencing plant water uptake like rooting characteristics are also summarized.
Soil horizons are parallel layers found in a cross-section of soil, identified by letters beginning with O at the surface and moving downward through A, E, B, and C horizons to the underlying bedrock or parent material. The top horizons contain the most organic matter from decomposing vegetation above and below ground. Nutrients leach from the organic matter through the horizons with rainfall and weathering, causing color changes. There are 6 main horizons: O horizon at the surface contains litter; A horizon is the topsoil; B horizon is the subsoil where materials are deposited; C horizon is weathered rock; D horizon is actively weathering rock; and R horizon is the solid bedrock.
This document discusses different types of soil and their ability to absorb water. It identifies 5 main types of soil: red soil, black soil, alluvial soil, sandy soil, and clay soil. Each soil type is described in terms of its composition, properties and deficiencies. The ability of soil to retain water depends on its water absorption tendency and water retention tendency. Soils like black soil and clay soil have higher water absorption and retention abilities compared to sandy soil.
This document describes soil orders and their distribution in Pakistan. It discusses 12 major soil orders globally based on their morphological, mineralogical and chemical properties. In Pakistan, the six main soil orders from most to least extensive are Aridisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Vertisols and Mollisols. Each order is defined and their occurrence and land use in Pakistan is summarized.
Soil formation is a long process influenced by climate, rock type, vegetation, and time. Soil is composed of mineral particles, organic matter, air, and water. It has distinct layers called horizons that differ in composition and depth of organic matter and minerals. Soil type depends on climate, parent rock material, vegetation, and time for development, with some soils taking thousands of years to form.
The document discusses soil profiles and their components. A soil profile is a cross-sectional view of soil and consists of different horizons. The topmost horizon, O horizon, contains mostly organic matter. The A horizon below it is topsoil with good amounts of organic matter and minerals. The B horizon, or subsoil, has less organic matter. The lowest C horizon is mostly parent material and does little for plant growth.
This document discusses soil and its properties. It defines important terms related to soil like humus, weathering, and parent rock. It describes the layers of soil profile known as horizons A, B, and C. Horizon A is the topsoil with humus and nutrients. Horizon B is below with more minerals and compact texture. Horizon C has partly weathered rocks. The last layer is bedrock which cannot be dug. It discusses processes like percolation, moisture content, and absorption of water in different soils. Factors causing soil erosion like rainfall, agriculture, grazing, and winds are also mentioned.
The soil system integrates aspects of living systems and biogeochemical cycles. Soil forms through weathering of parent material and incorporates organic matter from decomposing organisms. Soil profiles develop distinct horizontal layers or horizons over time. Soil types are classified based on their texture, which depends on proportions of sand, silt, and clay. Primary productivity relies on soil properties like mineral content, drainage, and water-holding capacity. Soil degradation occurs through erosion, acidification, salinization, and other human impacts. Conservation strategies aim to reduce erosion, maintain vegetation cover, and manage irrigation and grazing.
Sandy soil consists of large particles that allow for good drainage but can dry out plants. Clay soil is made of very fine particles that make it difficult to work with due to poor drainage and risk of waterlogging. Loamy soil balances sand, silt and clay for good texture, water retention and drainage. Chalky soil is alkaline with many stones and prone to dryness. Peaty soil is rich in organic matter but low in nutrients unless well fertilized and drained. The subsoil below the topsoil may not contain nutrients for plants.
The factors which relate to structure and composition of soil are called edaphic factors.
Soil is a very complex medium. A good fertile soil contains mineral matter (40%), organic matter (10%), water (15%) and air (25%).
Mineral matter in the soil occurs in the form of particles. Soil can be studied under Physical and chemical properties.
This document provides an overview of sedimentology and sedimentary processes. It defines sedimentology as the scientific study of sedimentary rocks and the processes involved in their formation. Various types of sedimentary rocks are described based on their composition, such as clastic rocks composed of fragments, carbonates precipitated from water, and evaporites formed from evaporated water. Common sedimentary structures and environments are also outlined, including alluvial fans, rivers, lakes, deltas, and marine settings. Principles of sedimentary rock formation like superposition and lateral continuity are explained. Methodologies for analyzing and classifying sediments and sedimentary rocks are presented.
This document provides an introduction to topics that will be covered related to ecology and the environment by a group. It includes sections on ecosystems, soil types, geology, microclimate, drainage patterns, and watershed areas. The ecosystem section defines terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and provides examples. The soil types section describes four main types of soil: sandy, silt, clay, and loamy soil. It provides details on the composition and properties of each soil type. The microclimate section discusses how urban design impacts local climate conditions and thermal comfort. The drainage pattern section outlines different drainage system patterns including dendritic, parallel and rectangular patterns that form based on landscape features.
The document discusses the 12 soil orders in the USDA soil taxonomy system. It provides details on the defining properties and global distribution of each order. Entisols are soils of recent origin with little development, while Inceptisols and Alfisols exhibit more development but lack features of other orders. Mollisols are characterized by a thick, dark surface horizon from long-term plant additions. The document provides an overview of each soil order.
the presentation is about, what is soil and what it the components of soil? And major types of soil in south Asia is found. specially in Bangladesh with necessary figure. _Parves Khan
Soil is formed by the weathering and disintegration of rock and accumulation of organic materials. It is classified based on grain size and composition. Three key soil types are sand, silt, and clay. Soil properties like density, water content, and void ratio influence its engineering behavior and are important considerations for construction. The document provides definitions and formulas for calculating various soil properties and indices.
This document discusses different types of soil including sandy soil, clay soil, silty soil, loamy soil, chalky soil, and peaty soil. It describes the characteristics of each soil type and some of the problems associated with each. For example, it notes that sandy soil does not hold water well and nutrients drain quickly through it, while clay soil is difficult for air and water to penetrate, creating problems for plant growth. The document also discusses soil conservation and its importance.
The document summarizes key concepts regarding soil-water-plant relationships. It discusses the constituents of soil and nutrients required for plant growth. It describes soil properties like texture, structure, bulk density and porosity. Different soil types are classified. The importance of water in soil and concepts like soil water potential, matric potential, and soil water release curves are explained. Finer textured soils retain more water than coarse soils at a given tension due to differences in pore size distribution.
This document provides information on soil classification and taxonomy. It describes the major soil orders including Alfisols, Andisols, Aridisols, Entisols, Gelisols, Histosols, Inceptisols, Mollisols, Oxisols, Spodosols, Ultisols, and Vertisols. It also outlines the USDA soil taxonomy hierarchy from order down to soil series and explains the distinguishing characteristics used at each level such as diagnostic horizons, physical and chemical properties, texture, and consistence.
This document provides summaries of different soil types found in India:
- Black soil is dark grey to black in color with high clay content. It is found in 5.4 lakh sq km and suitable for cotton.
- Red soil is formed from weathered crystalline rocks. It is more sandy, less clayey, and poor in nutrients. It covers 3.5 lakh sq km.
- Laterite soil is brown to yellowish in color and forms a hard material used for building when exposed to air.
- Desert soil is sandy, porous, and low in nutrients and moisture. It covers 1.4 lakh sq km.
- Mountain soil is rich in humus and found in northeastern
Soil science for teachers (massive-the real dirt on soil)Moira Whitehouse
A very large Slide Show on soil. Useful for anyone without formal earth science training who might need to bone up or teach any aspect of soil. It's huge, 159 slides. It could also be split up into several lessons for students.
This document describes the different types of soil found around the world. It discusses alluvial soil formed by river deposits, black soil which is dark and clay-rich, and red soil formed from weathered rocks. It also outlines mountain soil, desert soil, saline/alkaline soil, peaty/marshy soil, residual soil, marine soil, glacial soil, loamy soil, laterite soil, and aeolian soil transported by wind. The types of soil vary based on their composition, texture, and the environmental factors involved in their formation.
|| A note on soil ||
|| Introduction/Profile of soil ||
|| Characteristics &Types of soil ||
|| Production & Formation of soil ||
|| Properties & classification of soil ||
The document discusses soil water plant relationships and provides details on various topics related to soil properties, water movement and plant water needs. It discusses how soil properties like texture, structure and organic matter determine water holding capacity and infiltration rates. It describes the different types of water in soil like gravitational, capillary and hygroscopic water. Key soil water constants like field capacity, permanent wilting point and available water are explained. Factors affecting water movement like infiltration and factors influencing plant water uptake like rooting characteristics are also summarized.
Soil horizons are parallel layers found in a cross-section of soil, identified by letters beginning with O at the surface and moving downward through A, E, B, and C horizons to the underlying bedrock or parent material. The top horizons contain the most organic matter from decomposing vegetation above and below ground. Nutrients leach from the organic matter through the horizons with rainfall and weathering, causing color changes. There are 6 main horizons: O horizon at the surface contains litter; A horizon is the topsoil; B horizon is the subsoil where materials are deposited; C horizon is weathered rock; D horizon is actively weathering rock; and R horizon is the solid bedrock.
This document discusses different types of soil and their ability to absorb water. It identifies 5 main types of soil: red soil, black soil, alluvial soil, sandy soil, and clay soil. Each soil type is described in terms of its composition, properties and deficiencies. The ability of soil to retain water depends on its water absorption tendency and water retention tendency. Soils like black soil and clay soil have higher water absorption and retention abilities compared to sandy soil.
This document describes soil orders and their distribution in Pakistan. It discusses 12 major soil orders globally based on their morphological, mineralogical and chemical properties. In Pakistan, the six main soil orders from most to least extensive are Aridisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Vertisols and Mollisols. Each order is defined and their occurrence and land use in Pakistan is summarized.
Soil formation is a long process influenced by climate, rock type, vegetation, and time. Soil is composed of mineral particles, organic matter, air, and water. It has distinct layers called horizons that differ in composition and depth of organic matter and minerals. Soil type depends on climate, parent rock material, vegetation, and time for development, with some soils taking thousands of years to form.
The document discusses soil profiles and their components. A soil profile is a cross-sectional view of soil and consists of different horizons. The topmost horizon, O horizon, contains mostly organic matter. The A horizon below it is topsoil with good amounts of organic matter and minerals. The B horizon, or subsoil, has less organic matter. The lowest C horizon is mostly parent material and does little for plant growth.
This document discusses soil and its properties. It defines important terms related to soil like humus, weathering, and parent rock. It describes the layers of soil profile known as horizons A, B, and C. Horizon A is the topsoil with humus and nutrients. Horizon B is below with more minerals and compact texture. Horizon C has partly weathered rocks. The last layer is bedrock which cannot be dug. It discusses processes like percolation, moisture content, and absorption of water in different soils. Factors causing soil erosion like rainfall, agriculture, grazing, and winds are also mentioned.
The soil system integrates aspects of living systems and biogeochemical cycles. Soil forms through weathering of parent material and incorporates organic matter from decomposing organisms. Soil profiles develop distinct horizontal layers or horizons over time. Soil types are classified based on their texture, which depends on proportions of sand, silt, and clay. Primary productivity relies on soil properties like mineral content, drainage, and water-holding capacity. Soil degradation occurs through erosion, acidification, salinization, and other human impacts. Conservation strategies aim to reduce erosion, maintain vegetation cover, and manage irrigation and grazing.
Sandy soil consists of large particles that allow for good drainage but can dry out plants. Clay soil is made of very fine particles that make it difficult to work with due to poor drainage and risk of waterlogging. Loamy soil balances sand, silt and clay for good texture, water retention and drainage. Chalky soil is alkaline with many stones and prone to dryness. Peaty soil is rich in organic matter but low in nutrients unless well fertilized and drained. The subsoil below the topsoil may not contain nutrients for plants.
The factors which relate to structure and composition of soil are called edaphic factors.
Soil is a very complex medium. A good fertile soil contains mineral matter (40%), organic matter (10%), water (15%) and air (25%).
Mineral matter in the soil occurs in the form of particles. Soil can be studied under Physical and chemical properties.
This document provides an overview of sedimentology and sedimentary processes. It defines sedimentology as the scientific study of sedimentary rocks and the processes involved in their formation. Various types of sedimentary rocks are described based on their composition, such as clastic rocks composed of fragments, carbonates precipitated from water, and evaporites formed from evaporated water. Common sedimentary structures and environments are also outlined, including alluvial fans, rivers, lakes, deltas, and marine settings. Principles of sedimentary rock formation like superposition and lateral continuity are explained. Methodologies for analyzing and classifying sediments and sedimentary rocks are presented.
This document provides an introduction to topics that will be covered related to ecology and the environment by a group. It includes sections on ecosystems, soil types, geology, microclimate, drainage patterns, and watershed areas. The ecosystem section defines terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and provides examples. The soil types section describes four main types of soil: sandy, silt, clay, and loamy soil. It provides details on the composition and properties of each soil type. The microclimate section discusses how urban design impacts local climate conditions and thermal comfort. The drainage pattern section outlines different drainage system patterns including dendritic, parallel and rectangular patterns that form based on landscape features.
The document discusses various topics related to hydrologic cycles and groundwater including:
1) The water cycle is driven by energy from the sun and involves evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.
2) Groundwater occurs below the ground surface in voids and fractures in rocks and soil based on porosity and permeability.
3) Aquifers are underground areas that store and transmit groundwater while aquicludes and aquitards have low permeability and transmit water slowly or not at all.
4) Different rock types like sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks can serve as aquifers depending on their porosity and permeability.
This document describes various sedimentary environments including continental, marine, and transitional environments. Continental environments include fluvial, lacustrine, paludal, glacial, and desert. Marine environments include shallow marine environments like reefs and continental shelves as well as deep marine environments like continental slopes, rises, and abyssal plains. Transitional environments are at the transition between land and sea and include deltas, tidal flats, beaches, barrier islands, and lagoons.
Landforms and Soils of Pakistan (Nadeem Ahmed).pptnahmedssp
This document discusses landforms and soils of Pakistan. It describes the major landforms as mountains, Potwar uplands, sandy deserts, piedmont plains, river terraces/plains, and the Indus delta. For each landform, the document discusses location, climate, geology, vegetation, and characteristic soil types. The major soil orders found in Pakistan include aridisols, entisols, inceptisols, vertisols and mollisols. Pedogenic processes and factors affecting soil formation are also summarized.
The document discusses weathering, erosion, mass wasting, and sedimentation. It defines weathering as the breakdown of rocks at Earth's surface through mechanical or chemical processes. Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces without changing their chemical composition, while chemical weathering alters the rocks' chemical and physical makeup. Erosion transports weathered materials, and mass wasting involves downslope rock/soil movement by gravity. Sedimentation is the deposition of eroded and transported particles.
This document discusses soil, including its composition, formation processes, and classification. Soil forms through weathering of parent materials and is influenced by climate, topography, biological factors, and time. Key processes in soil formation include leaching, eluviation, illuviation, podsolisation, and gleying. Soil taxonomy classifies soils into orders, suborders, great groups, and subgroups based on properties related to formation factors. Soil provides the medium for plant growth and is a natural resource consisting of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and living organisms.
Soil is composed of minerals, organic matter, living organisms, air, and water. It has a profile of distinct horizontal layers called horizons, including the topsoil-rich A horizon, the nutrient-rich B horizon below, and the weathered C horizon atop bedrock. Different soil types form in various climates - for example, podzol soils occur in rainy forests while chernozem soils are common in grasslands. Soil can gradually shift down slopes through creep, and its quality can deteriorate over time through depletion of nutrients or erosion by water, wind, or human activities.
Here are potential answers to the questions:
1. A flow diagram could show:
- Weathering processes breaking down rock in the lithosphere into regolith
- Regolith and organic matter forming soil horizons
- Atmospheric gases and water entering the soil pore spaces
- Water and dissolved nutrients moving between soil horizons
- Nutrients taken up by plant roots in the biosphere
- Organic matter entering from dead plant and animal matter
- Nutrients and water interacting between the solid, liquid and gas phases
2. Sandy soils have large pores allowing good drainage but low water-holding capacity. They feel gritty. Clayey soils have small pores, high water-holding capacity but poor drainage and are
1) The document discusses soil, including its composition of distinct layers called horizons. The uppermost horizon is the topsoil, which is dark and rich in humus and minerals.
2) Soil profile is examined, with the topsoil providing shelter for organisms and plant roots. The next layer has less humus but more minerals. The lowest layer is bedrock.
3) Soil types are classified based on particle size, with sandy soil having large particles, clayey soil having fine particles, and loam being the best mixture for plant growth.
soil formation, geological cycle , weathering of soil, physical and chemical weathering, type of soil, transported soil etc is include in this material
Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration, or electromagnetism.
Soil Science Simplified.ppt #soil science #fundamentals of sailajaysaini99283371
This document provides an introduction to basic soil properties and formation factors. It discusses why soil is an important resource, noting its role in plant growth, water filtration, gas exchange, and historical record. The document then covers physical soil properties like texture, structure, pore space, temperature, and color. It describes the components that make up soil, such as sand, silt, clay, and organic matter. It also explains methods for determining properties like texture, using the soil texture triangle and Munsell color system.
The document summarizes key characteristics of sediment and landforms in desert environments. It describes how deserts are defined by low rainfall and how wind is a dominant agent of erosion and deposition. Some key points:
1) Wind erodes primarily through abrasion and deflation, shaping rocks into ventifacts and creating yardangs, desert pavement and depressions.
2) Wind deposits include dunes, loess and alluvial fans. Dunes come in different types depending on wind patterns.
3) Characteristic desert landforms include playas, inland sabkhas, pediments, mesas and buttes formed through erosion.
4) Sediments include eolian and alluvial deposits with
This presentation will give you knowledge regarding soil texture, soil structure and their impacts on soil water. In addition it will provide idea about bulk density, particle density, porosity and some other parameters. Appropriate formulas and questions for practice also have been attached with the presentation
This document discusses various aeolian (wind-related) landforms. It begins by defining aeolian processes and explaining how wind erosion can cause deflation, abrasion, and attrition. Deflation removes loose particles while abrasion wears down rocks. Attrition rounds particles as they collide. Wind then transports material through suspension, saltation, and traction. This leads to the formation of deserts like hamadas (rocky deserts), ergs (sand seas), and regs (stony deserts). Erosional landforms include yardangs, zeugen, inselbergs, and playa lakes. Depositional forms include various types of sand dunes (barchans, transverse, par
Hydrosphere add By Muhammad Fahad Ansari 12IEEM14fahadansari131
The document discusses the structure and distribution of Earth's hydrosphere. It notes that 96.5% of water is found in oceans, with the remaining 3.5% being fresh water distributed between ice (1.762%), groundwater (1.7%), surface fresh water (0.014%), and the atmosphere and soil (0.002%). It also describes the locations of fresh water including rivers, streams, lakes, aquifers, and wetlands. Finally, it discusses the roles of the hydrosphere, cryosphere, and atmosphere in weathering land surfaces and influencing climate through ice ages and global warming.
The document discusses groundwater sources, zones, and types of aquifers. It describes the saturated and unsaturated zones, including the soil water, intermediate vadose, and capillary fringe zones. The main types of aquifers are defined as aquifer, aquitard, aquiclude, and aquifuge based on their water transmission properties. Methods of artificial groundwater recharge include direct surface techniques like flooding basins and percolation tanks, and direct subsurface techniques like injection wells.
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Improving the Management of Peatlands and the Capacities of Stakeholders in I...
Earth (climatology)
1. • INTRODUCTION
• WHAT IS EARTH?
• SOIL CONDITION
• SOIL TYPES
• ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS
• TYPES OF ROCKS
• ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS
• COMPONENTS OF EARTH.
• DIVIDING ACCORDING TO ATMOSPHERIC LEVELS
• LANDFORMS – COMPONENTS
• VEGETATION(CLASSIFICATION)
• TYPES OF VEGETATION
• INFERENCES (NATURAL COMPONENTS)
• MANMADE COMPONENTS
2. INTRODUCTION
• Most of the Earth's surface (70%) is covered with water, and the
remaining 30% is taken up by the seven continental landmasses.
However, underneath the water that fills the oceans, and the dirt and
plants that cover the continents, the Earth's surface layer is made of
rock. This outer layer formed a hard, rocky crust as lava at the
surface cooled 4.5 billion years ago.
• Total Surface area of earth’s surface is 510.1 million km²
3. WHAT IS EARTH?
• Earth is the planet we live on.
It is the third planet from the sun.
It is the only planet known to have
life on it. ... Earth is the only
planet in our solar system that
has a large amount of liquid
water. About 71% of the
surface of Earth is covered
by oceans.
4. SOIL CONDITION
• Tilth,
Physical condition of soil,
especially in relation to its
suitability for planting or
growing a crop. Factors that
determine tilth include the
formation and stability of
aggregated soil particles,
moisture content, degree of
aeration, rate of water
infiltration, and drainage.
6. SOIL TYPE
• Sandy
• Sandy soil has the largest particles
among the different soil types. It’s
dry and gritty to the touch, and
because the particles have huge
spaces between them, it can’t hold
on to water.
• Water drains rapidly, straight
through to places where the roots,
particularly those of seedlings,
cannot reach. Plants don’t have a
chance of using the nutrients in
sandy soil more efficiently as
they’re swiftly carried away by the
runoff.
7. 1. Strip foundations are usually adequate
for dry compact gravel, or gravel and
sand subsoil. Generally a depth of 700mm
is acceptable, as long as the ground has
adequate bearing capacity.
2. If the water table is high (i.e. the gravel
is submerged), the bearing capacity is
halved, so it’s important to keep the
foundations as high as possible. A shallow,
reinforced, wide strip foundation may be
suitable.
3. Sand holds together reasonably well
when damp, compacted and uniform, but
trenches may collapse and so sheet piling
is often used to retain the ground in
trenches until the concrete is poured.
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS
•SAND AND GRAVEL GRAVEL
SAND
8. • Strip foundations are
commonly used in chalk.
Providing that the chalk is
not too soft. The depth of
the foundation must be
below any frost action
(700mm). If the chalk is soft
it will need to be excavated
until firm chalk is reached.
• Chalk soils can be prone to
erosion.
CHALK
CHALK
STRIP FOUNDATION
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS
9. SOIL TYPE
• Silty
• Silty soil has much smaller
particles than sandy soil so
it’s smooth to the touch.
When moistened, it’s soapy
slick. When you roll it
between your fingers, dirt is
left on your skin.
• Silty soil retains water longer,
but it can’t hold on to as much
nutrients as you’d want it to
though it’s fairly fertile. Due to
its moisture-retentive quality,
silty soil is cold and drains
poorly.
11. SOIL TYPE
• Clay
• Clay soil has the smallest
particles among the three so
it has good water storage
qualities. It’s sticky to the
touch when wet, but smooth
when dry.
• Due to the tiny size of its
particles and its tendency to
settle together, little air
passes through its spaces.
Because it’s also slower to
drain, it has a tighter hold on
plant nutrients. Clay soil is
thus rich in plant food for
better growth.
12. • THE FIRST 900-1,200MM LAYER
OF CLAY IS SUBJECT TO
MOVEMENT DUE TO EXPANSION
AND SHRINKAGE DEPENDING ON
MOISTURE CONTENT, SO IT IS
GENERALLY NECESSARY TO
EXCAVATE FOUNDATIONS TO A
DEPTH WHERE THE MOISTURE
CONTENT OF THE CLAY REMAINS
STABLE.
• IN CLAY, PRIOR TO CONCRETING
THE FOUNDATIONS, THE TRENCH
IS OFTEN PROTECTED FROM
HEAVE BY LINING IT WITH A
COMPRESSIBLE LAYER USUALLY
CLAY BOARD.
CLAY BOARD
CLAY
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS
13. SOIL TYPE
• Peaty
• Peaty soil is dark brown or
black in color, soft, easily
compressed due to its high
water content, and rich in
organic matter. Peat soil
started forming over 9,000
years ago, with the rapid
melting of glaciers. This rapid
melt drowned plants quickly
and died in the process. Their
decay was so slow
underwater that it led to the
accumulation of organic area
in a concentrated spot.
14. • SOIL TYPE: FIBRISTS/PEAT
• FIBRISTS HISTOSOLS THAT ARE
PRIMARILY MADE UP OF ONLY
SLIGHTLY DECOMPOSED ORGANIC
MATERIALS, OFTEN CALLED PEA
• PEAT AND LOOSE WATERLOGGED
SAND ARE VERY POOR SUBSOILS. IF
THE PEAT CAN BE STRIPPED BACK TO
FIND SUITABLE LOAD-BEARING
GROUND OF AT LEAST 1.5M DEPTH,
STRIP FOUNDATIONS MAY BE
SUITABLE. A REINFORCED RAFT
FOUNDATION WILL LIKELY BE
REQUIRED
FIBRISTS HISTOSOLS
PEAT
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS
15. TYPE
• Saline
• The soil in extremely dry regions
is usually brackish because of its
high salt content. Known as
saline soil, it can cause damage
to and stall plant growth, impede
germination, and cause
difficulties in irrigation.
• The salinity is due to the buildup
of soluble salts in the
rhizosphere—high salt contents
prevent water uptake by plants,
leading to drought stress.
16. • TAMPING ENERGY IS IMPORTANT ON
REINFORCEMENT EFFECT TO THE LAST THREE
METHODS AND RELATED DIRECTLY TO THE
VALUES OF THE STRENGTHENED BEARING
CAPACITY AND DEFORMATION MODULUS.
• THE DCR METHOD AND GRAVEL PILES
METHOD MENTIONED ABOVE ARE USEFUL
ON REDUCING THE SETTLEMENT OF NATURAL
SALINE SOILS FOUNDATION. IN RECENT
YEARS, A LOT OF GROUND TREATMENT
METHODS ARE WIDELY USED TO
CONSOLIDATE SOFT SOIL FOUNDATION FOR
ITS SHORT PERIOD AND SIMPLE
CONSTRUCTION AND SO ON. NUMEROUS
SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS HAVE OBTAINED
USEFUL RESULTS AND EXPERIENCE FROM DCR
AND GRAVEL PILES FOUNDATION TREATMENT
OF SOFT SOIL
https://www.scientific.net/AMR.622-623.1721
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS
18. • METAMORPHIC
•
METAMORPHIC ROCKS ARE
FORMED UNDER THE SURFACE OF
THE EARTH FROM THE
METAMORPHOSIS (CHANGE) THAT
OCCURS DUE TO INTENSE HEAT
AND PRESSURE (SQUEEZING). THE
ROCKS THAT RESULT FROM THESE
PROCESSES OFTEN HAVE RIBBON
LIKE LAYERS AND MAY HAVE SHINY
CRYSTALS, FORMED BY MINERALS
GROWING SLOWLY OVER TIME, ON
THEIR SURFACE.
EXAMPLES OF THIS ROCK TYPE
INCLUDE GNEISS AND MARBLE.
19. • GNEISS ROCK
• ORNAMENTAL
STONE. METAMORPHIC GNEISS HAS MANY
USES AS A BUILDING MATERIAL SUCH AS
FLOORING, ORNAMENTAL STONES,
GRAVESTONES, FACING STONES ON
BUILDINGS AND WORK SURFACES
• HOW IS A GNEISS ROCK FORMED?
• GNEISS IS A HIGH GRADE METAMORPHIC
ROCK, MEANING THAT IT HAS BEEN
SUBJECTED TO HIGHER TEMPERATURES
AND PRESSURES THAN SCHIST. IT
IS FORMED BY THE METAMORPHOSIS OF
GRANITE, OR SEDIMENTARY
ROCK. GNEISS DISPLAYS DISTINCT
FOLIATION, REPRESENTING ALTERNATING
LAYERS COMPOSED OF DIFFERENT
MINERALS.
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS
20. • SEDIMENTARY ROCK
• ONE OF THE THREE MAIN ROCK GROUPS
(ALONG WITH IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC
ROCKS) AND IS FORMED IN FOUR MAIN WAYS:
BY THE DEPOSITION OF THE WEATHERED
REMAINS OF OTHER ROCKS (KNOWN AS
'CLASTIC' SEDIMENTARY ROCKS); BY THE
ACCUMULATION AND THE CONSOLIDATION OF
SEDIMENTS; BY THE DEPOSITION OF THE
RESULTS OF BIOGENIC ACTIVITY; AND BY
PRECIPITATION FROM SOLUTION.
• SEDIMENTARY ROCKS COVER 75% OF THE
EARTH'S SURFACE. ... SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS AREFORMED FROM OVERBURDEN
PRESSURE AS PARTICLES OF SEDIMENT ARE
DEPOSITED OUT OF AIR, ICE, OR WATER FLOWS
CARRYING THE PARTICLES IN SUSPENSION.
22. • IGNEOUS ROCKS
• IGNEOUS ROCKS FORM FROM
THE SOLIDIFICATION OF MAGMA
(MOLTEN ROCK). A REMINDER: MAGMA
IS MOLTEN ROCK BENEATH THE
EARTH'S SURFACE AND LAVA IS MAGMA
THAT IS ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE. THE
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IGNEOUS
ROCK ARE CRYSTAL SIZE (GRAIN SIZE)
AND TEXTURE.
• BASALT IS AN EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK
USED IN CONSTRUCTING BUILDINGS AND
STATUES. EXTRUSIVE ROCKSARE ALSO
REFERRED AS VOLCANIC ROCKS BECAUSE
VOLCANOES ARE IMPORTANT IN THEIR
FORMATION. WHEN MAGMA COOLS AND
HARDENS BELOW THE EARTH'S SURFACE,
AN INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK FORMS.
24. ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS
• THE EARTH IS DIVIDED INTO FOUR
COMPONENTS THAT ALL INTERACT
TOGETHER.
• ATMOSPHERE (AIR)
• HYDROSPHERE (WATER)
• GEOSPHERE
(ROCK, SOIL AND SEDIMENT)
• Pyschosphere: defined as that
connected to the humanity.
1. ECOSPHERE
2. HYDROSPHERE
3. LITHOSPHERE
4. BIOSPHERE
5. ATMOSPHERE
25. Dividing According To Atmospheric
Levels
i. Atmosphere surrounds the earth in layers:
ii. Lower atmosphere at ground level
iii. Troposphere from 20 km from earth
iv. Stratosphere from 40 km ionosphere from 60 km
v. Outer space with no atmosphere.
26. LANDFORMS ~ COMPONENTS
• PLATEAU : It’s a flat area higher than the land around it.
• CANYON : It’s a deep valley with very steep sides.
• OASIS : It’s an isolated place in the desert where there is vegetation. Most often,
this occurs around a source of water.
• CAVE : A cave is a natural underground hollow space. They can have narrow
passageways and chambers.
• GULF : It’s a large bay that is an arm of an ocean or sea.
• CLIFF : It’s a vertical or very steep natural wall of rock.
• COAST : Areas of land that come in direct contact with oceans.
• ISLAND : Areas that are completely surrounded by water.
• ARCHIPELAGO : It’s a chain or a group of islands.
• PENINSULA : Area of land surrounded by water on three sides
27. • SWAMP : They are forested, low, spongy land generally saturated with water
and covered with trees and aquatic plants.
• BEACH :A beach is a landform along the coast of an ocean, sea, lake, or river.
• PLAIN : It’s a large area of land with no hills or mountains.
• PRAIRIE : It’s a type of habitat with mostly grasses, but also flowering plants,
shrubs or isolated trees.
• GLACIER : A glacier is a large body of ice and snow. It forms because the
snow in that area does not melt in the summers.
• RIVER : Is a stream of water that flows through a passage in the surface of
the ground.
• DELTA : A river delta is a landform where the mouth of a river flows into
an ocean, sea, lake or another river.
• LAGOON : It’s a body of salt water partly separated from the sea.
• OCEAN : It’s a large area of salt water between continents.
• CHANNEL : It’s a connection between two bodies of water.
• STRAIT : It’s a narrow channel of water that connects two land masses.
• WATERFALL : It’s a body of water that rushes down a steep ledge.
• LAKE : It’s a body of water surrounded by land.
• BAY : A body of water with land on three sides.
• SEA : It’s a large area of salt water which is part of an ocean.
30. FOREST
• Forests are areas with trees grouped in a way so their
leaves, or foliage, shade the ground. Forests can be
found just about anywhere trees can grow, from
below sea level to high in the mountains. From
tropical rain forests near the Equator to boreal forests
in cold climates close to the Arctic Circle, different
types of forests can be found all over the world.
• Sometimes forests are classified by the type of leaves
on their trees. Trees in broad-leaved forests have
wide, flat leaves. Tropical rain forests are a type of
broad-leaved forest. Tropical rain forests, such as
Brazil’s Amazon Basin rain forest, are found near the
Equator. They contain more than half of the
world’s biodiversity, or variety of plant and animal
species.
31. GRASSLANDS
• Grasslands are, as their name suggests, flat and open areas where grasses
are the dominant type of vegetation. Grasslands can be found on every
continent except Antarctica.
• Climate plays a role in the type of grassland you get. In cool, mild
climates, like northwest Europe, grasslands are dominated by tough
vegetation, such as oats, that thrives all year. Some of these grasses are
so tough and hardy that they are considered weeds.
• In warmer climates, seasonal vegetation survives better. Temperate
grasslands exist where there are seasonal variations in temperature over
the course of the year: hot summers and cold winters. Different
grasses thrive in different temperatures here. Temperate grasslands exist
from the prairies of North America to the veld, or rural grassland, of
South Africa.
32. TUNDRA
• Tundra is an area where tree growth is difficult because of cold
temperatures and short seasons. Vegetation in tundra is limited to a
few shrubs, grasses, and mosses. Scientists estimate roughly 1,700
different species live in the tundra, which isn’t much compared to
forests and grasslands. The ground is often too cold for plants to set
down roots, and without plants, few animal species can survive.
• There are two types of tundra: alpine tundra and arctic tundra. Alpine
tundra is separated from a forest vegetation region by the tree line, the
area beyond which conditions are too harsh or cold for tree growth.
The weather in alpine tundras is cold, snowy, and windy. Most of
the Tibetan Plateau, the so-called “roof of the world” located in Tibet,
China, and India, is alpine tundra. Animals like mountain goats live in
this vegetation region
33. DESERTS
• A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and
consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life.
The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the
ground to the processes of denudation. About one third of the land
surface of the world is arid or semi-arid. Deserts are formed
by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between
day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in
pieces.
34. TROPICAL EVERGREEN
• It is a plant which keeps its leaves throughout the year.
Found in the coastal areas, these forests grow in areas
where rainfall is more than 200 cm. The trees in these
forests never shed their leaves all at a time in any part of
the year. So that during the dry-season, trees in these
forests do not shed their leaves due to lack of sub-soil
water supply. The trees in these belts have dense growth
• Example : Mahogany has a straight, fine, and even grain,
and is relatively free of voids and pockets. Its reddish-
brown color darkens over time, and displays a reddish
sheen when polished. It has excellent workability, and is
very durable. These properties make it a favorable wood for
crafting cabinets and furniture.
35. DECIDUOS OR MONSOON FORESTS
• These forests are found in areas where the rainfall is
between 100 cm and 200 cm. The trees of these forests
shed their leaves during dry-winter and dry-summer.
These forests supply valuable timber.
• Example : Teak is still the golden standard when it comes
to outdoor seating and furniture. Because of Teak’s great
weathering capabilities, it’s a very popular as a classic
long lasting outdoor furniture material and even longer
in indoor applications. It provides warmth when used
for flooring.
• From baseboards to crown moldings, teak is used to
create beautiful interior spaces and also as components
to be used for windows or doors.
36. DRY DECIDUOUS AND SCRUBS
• These forests grow in areas where the
rainfall is between 50 cm and 100 cm.
Dwarf deciduous trees and long-grasses
grow in these regions.
• Example : Contorted hazelnut may
actually be at its best in winter: without
any leaves in the way, you can better
appreciate the madcap twists and turns of
its branches.
• Example : Japanese maples are dwarf
trees useful in planning a small yard
design and in green landscaping.
37. MOUNTAIN FORESTS
• Mountain forests vary considerably according to
altitude with varying rainfall and temperature along
the slopes of mountain. On higher slopes, coniferous
trees, such as, pine, fir, oak, maple, deodar and
cedar grow. Junipers are found at an even higher
altitude. Beyond these vegetation-belts, alpine
grasslands appear up to be a snowfield.
• Example : Softwood - typically used in construction
as structural timber, as well as finishing timber. Also
found in building components (windows, doors),
furniture, medium-density fiberboard (MDF). It is
less expensive and has a faster growth rate but is
less fire resistant.
38. INFERENCES (NATURAL COMPONENTS)
• The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living
things occurring naturally. This environment encompasses the
interaction of all living species, climate, weather, and natural
resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The
concept of the natural environment can be distinguished by
components:
• Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without
massive civilized human intervention, including all
vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural
phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature
• Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack
clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well
as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating
from civilized human activity.
39. ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
Ecological footprint (EF) is an
amount of human demand on
earth’s ecosystems. EF number
shows us the amount of
productive land and water which
are required for the humankind’s
consumption in order to
produce energy and natural
resources and to absorb the
waste humans create. Leaving
no ecological footprint would
mean that humans gives back to
the environment just as much as
he’s taking.
40. MANMADE COMPONENTS
• There are several components of environment,
which are created by man. Environment is complete
with natural and man made environment together,
the latter including crop fields, cities, industrial
space, zoo, dams, aquariums etc. These are the
places, which are artificially made by man by
planned manipulation.
• Example : Residences of city people are made up of
bricks and cement, not of mud with thatched roof
like the people living onto the rural side. A park or
little garden is a man made ecosystem in our back
yards is another example.