This document summarizes a survey on network layer multicast routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks. It begins with an introduction to multicast routing in MANETs and their advantages over unicast. It then provides an overview of the architecture for multicast routing protocols, which consists of three layers: the MAC, routing, and application layers. The document classifies and discusses issues with designing multicast protocols for MANETs. It also categorizes existing multicast routing protocols based on the structure they construct (tree or mesh based), how sessions are initialized (source or receiver initiated), and how topology is maintained (proactively or reactively). Several example protocols are described briefly, including MAODV, AMRIS, and
Overview of Improving Robustness of MAODV Protocol by Combining Tree and Mesh...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes research on improving the robustness of the MAODV multicast routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks. It discusses how MAODV uses a tree structure for routing but lacks redundancy, hurting performance in high load or dynamic networks. The document proposes a new MAODV-BB protocol that combines tree and mesh structures by using group messages to update shorter branches and construct a multicast tree with backup branches. This improves robustness without extra overhead.
Application independent based multicast routing protocols in mobile ad hoc ne...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes and compares several application-independent multicast routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It discusses the key challenges in designing multicast routing protocols for MANETs, including robustness, efficiency, control overhead, and dependency on unicast routing. It also presents a reference model architecture for multicast routing protocols and classifications based on topology (tree-based vs. mesh-based) and approach (reactive vs. proactive). Several specific multicast routing protocols are described, including AMRoute, AMRIS, and ODMRP, focusing on their mechanisms for group management, tree/mesh construction, and maintenance in dynamic network conditions.
A Review of the Energy Efficient and Secure Multicast Routing Protocols for ...graphhoc
This paper presents a thorough survey of recent work addressing energy efficient multicast routing protocols and secure multicast routing protocols in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs). There are so many issues and solutions which witness the need of energy management and security in ad hoc wireless networks. The objective of a multicast routing protocol for MANETs is to support the propagation of data from a sender to all the receivers of a multicast group while trying to use the available bandwidth efficiently in the presence of frequent topology changes. Multicasting can improve the efficiency of the wireless link when sending multiple copies of messages by exploiting the inherent broadcast property of wireless transmission. Secure multicast routing plays a significant role in MANETs. However, offering energy efficient and secure multicast routing is a difficult and challenging task. In recent years, various multicast routing protocols have been proposed for MANETs. These protocols have distinguishing features and use different mechanisms.
Link aware nice application level multicast protocolIJCNCJournal
Multicast is one of the most efficient ways to dist
ribute data to multiple users. There are different
types of
Multicast such as IP Multicast, Overlay Multicast,
and Application Layer Multicast (ALM). In this pape
r,
we present a link-aware Application Layer (ALM) Mul
ticast algorithm. Our proposed algorithm, Link
Aware-NICE (LA-NICE) [1], is an enhanced version of
the NICE protocol [2]. LA-NICE protocol uses the
variations of bandwidth or capacity in communicatio
n links to improve multicast message delivery and
minimize end-to-end delay. OMNeT++ simulation frame
work [3] was used to evaluate LA-NICE. The
evaluation is done through a comparison between LA-
NICE and NICE. The simulation results showed that
LA-NICE produces an increased percentage of success
ful message delivery ranging from 2% to 10%
compared to NICE. Also, LA-NICE has less average de
lay and less average message hop count than NICE
which reduces the overall latency of message delive
ry
The congestion control within the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) plays a critical role in
amending data rate to evade congestion from happening possibilities. Based on TCP communication sender
not only guarantees the successful packet delivery, but also maintains the correct sequence of packets by
receiving the frequent acknowledgement from the receiver. In this research we proposed a congestion
control scheme with modified TCP and queue length variation with OLSR routing protocol in MANET. The
TCP protocol performance is modified by forwarding busy channel signals to predecessor nodes through
intermediate nodes in network. The congestion is controlled by that novel method of detecting the node is
busy or ready for communication. If the communication is start in network and the possibility if congestion
is arise, then in that case the queue length is handle the possibility of congestion. The congestion is
minimized due to awaring about the channel busy status and nodes buffer status or queue status. The TCP
protocol is able to handle the congestion situation but i.e. completely based on acknowledgement of receiver
and also not very effective to control it. The proposed TCP congestion control OLSR routing is improves
the network performance by reducing packet loss. The performance of network is measure through
performance metrics like throughput, PDF and Routing overhead in different node density scenarios. The
performance of proposed scheme is provides the better results.
Mobile ad hoc network become nowadays more and more used in different
domains, due to its flexibility and low cost of deployment. However, this
kind of network still suffering from several problems as the lack of resources.
Many solutions are proposed to face these problems, among these solutions
there is the clustering approach. This approach tries to partition the network
into a virtual group. It is considered as a primordial solution that aims to
enhance the performance of the total network, and makes it possible to
guarantee basic levels of system performance. In this paper, we study some
schemes of clustering such as Dominating-Set-based clustering, Energyefficient
clustering, Low-maintenance clustering, Load-balancing clustering,
and Combined-metrics based clustering.
Active path updation for layered routing (apular) in wirelessAlexander Decker
1) The document proposes an Active Path Updation procedure (APULAR) for layered routing in wireless mesh networks to quickly update broken paths and reduce packet loss.
2) In APULAR, the destination node takes responsibility for local repair restoration instead of the source node initiating a new path discovery when a link breaks, as is typically done.
3) The procedure is simulated and shown to outperform AODV and IWMRA routing protocols, achieving better packet delivery ratio, lower control overhead, higher throughput, and lower end-to-end delay.
ENERGY EFFICIENT MULTICAST ROUTING IN MANET ijac journal
In this paper, we have presented the Modified Multicasting through Time Reservation using Adaptive
Control for Excellent Energy efficiency (MMC-TRACE). It is a real time multicasting architecture for
Mobile Ad-Hoc networks to make their work an energy efficient one .MMC-TRACE is a cross layer design
where the network layer and medium access control layer functionality are done in a single integrated
layer design. The basic design of the architecture is to establish and maintain an active multicast tree
surrounded by a passive mesh within a mobile ad hoc network. Energy efficiency is maximized by enabling
the particular node from sleep to awake mode while the remaining nodes of the same path are maintained
at sleep mode. Energy efficiency too achieved by eliminating most of the redundant data receptions across
nodes. The performance of MMC-TRACE are evaluated with the help of ns-2 simulations and comparisons
are made with its predecessor such as MC-TRACE. The results show that the MMC-TRACE provides
superior energy efficiency, competitive QoS performance and bandwidth efficiency.
Overview of Improving Robustness of MAODV Protocol by Combining Tree and Mesh...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes research on improving the robustness of the MAODV multicast routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks. It discusses how MAODV uses a tree structure for routing but lacks redundancy, hurting performance in high load or dynamic networks. The document proposes a new MAODV-BB protocol that combines tree and mesh structures by using group messages to update shorter branches and construct a multicast tree with backup branches. This improves robustness without extra overhead.
Application independent based multicast routing protocols in mobile ad hoc ne...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes and compares several application-independent multicast routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It discusses the key challenges in designing multicast routing protocols for MANETs, including robustness, efficiency, control overhead, and dependency on unicast routing. It also presents a reference model architecture for multicast routing protocols and classifications based on topology (tree-based vs. mesh-based) and approach (reactive vs. proactive). Several specific multicast routing protocols are described, including AMRoute, AMRIS, and ODMRP, focusing on their mechanisms for group management, tree/mesh construction, and maintenance in dynamic network conditions.
A Review of the Energy Efficient and Secure Multicast Routing Protocols for ...graphhoc
This paper presents a thorough survey of recent work addressing energy efficient multicast routing protocols and secure multicast routing protocols in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs). There are so many issues and solutions which witness the need of energy management and security in ad hoc wireless networks. The objective of a multicast routing protocol for MANETs is to support the propagation of data from a sender to all the receivers of a multicast group while trying to use the available bandwidth efficiently in the presence of frequent topology changes. Multicasting can improve the efficiency of the wireless link when sending multiple copies of messages by exploiting the inherent broadcast property of wireless transmission. Secure multicast routing plays a significant role in MANETs. However, offering energy efficient and secure multicast routing is a difficult and challenging task. In recent years, various multicast routing protocols have been proposed for MANETs. These protocols have distinguishing features and use different mechanisms.
Link aware nice application level multicast protocolIJCNCJournal
Multicast is one of the most efficient ways to dist
ribute data to multiple users. There are different
types of
Multicast such as IP Multicast, Overlay Multicast,
and Application Layer Multicast (ALM). In this pape
r,
we present a link-aware Application Layer (ALM) Mul
ticast algorithm. Our proposed algorithm, Link
Aware-NICE (LA-NICE) [1], is an enhanced version of
the NICE protocol [2]. LA-NICE protocol uses the
variations of bandwidth or capacity in communicatio
n links to improve multicast message delivery and
minimize end-to-end delay. OMNeT++ simulation frame
work [3] was used to evaluate LA-NICE. The
evaluation is done through a comparison between LA-
NICE and NICE. The simulation results showed that
LA-NICE produces an increased percentage of success
ful message delivery ranging from 2% to 10%
compared to NICE. Also, LA-NICE has less average de
lay and less average message hop count than NICE
which reduces the overall latency of message delive
ry
The congestion control within the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) plays a critical role in
amending data rate to evade congestion from happening possibilities. Based on TCP communication sender
not only guarantees the successful packet delivery, but also maintains the correct sequence of packets by
receiving the frequent acknowledgement from the receiver. In this research we proposed a congestion
control scheme with modified TCP and queue length variation with OLSR routing protocol in MANET. The
TCP protocol performance is modified by forwarding busy channel signals to predecessor nodes through
intermediate nodes in network. The congestion is controlled by that novel method of detecting the node is
busy or ready for communication. If the communication is start in network and the possibility if congestion
is arise, then in that case the queue length is handle the possibility of congestion. The congestion is
minimized due to awaring about the channel busy status and nodes buffer status or queue status. The TCP
protocol is able to handle the congestion situation but i.e. completely based on acknowledgement of receiver
and also not very effective to control it. The proposed TCP congestion control OLSR routing is improves
the network performance by reducing packet loss. The performance of network is measure through
performance metrics like throughput, PDF and Routing overhead in different node density scenarios. The
performance of proposed scheme is provides the better results.
Mobile ad hoc network become nowadays more and more used in different
domains, due to its flexibility and low cost of deployment. However, this
kind of network still suffering from several problems as the lack of resources.
Many solutions are proposed to face these problems, among these solutions
there is the clustering approach. This approach tries to partition the network
into a virtual group. It is considered as a primordial solution that aims to
enhance the performance of the total network, and makes it possible to
guarantee basic levels of system performance. In this paper, we study some
schemes of clustering such as Dominating-Set-based clustering, Energyefficient
clustering, Low-maintenance clustering, Load-balancing clustering,
and Combined-metrics based clustering.
Active path updation for layered routing (apular) in wirelessAlexander Decker
1) The document proposes an Active Path Updation procedure (APULAR) for layered routing in wireless mesh networks to quickly update broken paths and reduce packet loss.
2) In APULAR, the destination node takes responsibility for local repair restoration instead of the source node initiating a new path discovery when a link breaks, as is typically done.
3) The procedure is simulated and shown to outperform AODV and IWMRA routing protocols, achieving better packet delivery ratio, lower control overhead, higher throughput, and lower end-to-end delay.
ENERGY EFFICIENT MULTICAST ROUTING IN MANET ijac journal
In this paper, we have presented the Modified Multicasting through Time Reservation using Adaptive
Control for Excellent Energy efficiency (MMC-TRACE). It is a real time multicasting architecture for
Mobile Ad-Hoc networks to make their work an energy efficient one .MMC-TRACE is a cross layer design
where the network layer and medium access control layer functionality are done in a single integrated
layer design. The basic design of the architecture is to establish and maintain an active multicast tree
surrounded by a passive mesh within a mobile ad hoc network. Energy efficiency is maximized by enabling
the particular node from sleep to awake mode while the remaining nodes of the same path are maintained
at sleep mode. Energy efficiency too achieved by eliminating most of the redundant data receptions across
nodes. The performance of MMC-TRACE are evaluated with the help of ns-2 simulations and comparisons
are made with its predecessor such as MC-TRACE. The results show that the MMC-TRACE provides
superior energy efficiency, competitive QoS performance and bandwidth efficiency.
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the performance of three mobile ad hoc network (MANET) routing protocols: AODV, DSR, and DSDV. Through network simulations varying the number of nodes and connections, the paper evaluates the routing protocols based on average end-to-end delay, normalized routing load, packet delivery fraction, and throughput. The simulation results show that AODV generally has better performance than DSR and DSDV in terms of lower delay, higher packet delivery, and better throughput, especially as the network size increases. However, DSDV maintains more consistent performance than the reactive protocols as network conditions change.
INVESTIGATING MULTILAYER OMEGA-TYPE NETWORKS OPERATING WITH THE CUT-THROUGH T...IJCNCJournal
The continuous increase in the complexity of data networks has motivated the development of more effective Multistage Interconnection Networks (MINs) as important factors in providing higher data transfer rates in various switching divisions. In this paper, semi-layer omega-class networks operating with a cut-through forwarding technique are chosen as test-bed subjects for detailed evaluation, and this network architecture is modelled, inspected, and simulated. The results are examined for relevant singlelayer omega networks operating with cut-through or ‘store and forward’ forwarding techniques. Two series of experiments are carried out: one concerns the case of uniform traffic, while the other is related to hotspot traffic. The results quantify the way in which this network outperforms the corresponding singlelayer network architectures for the same network size and buffer size. Furthermore, the effects of the dimensions of the switch elements and their corresponding reliability on the overall interconnection system are investigated, and the complexity and the relevant cost are examined. The data yielded by this investigation can be valuable to MIN engineers and can allow them to achieve more productive networks with lower overall implementation costs.
Security Enhancement in AODV Routing Protocol for MANETsidescitation
Adhoc networks are a new wireless networking paradigm for mobile hosts.
Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) are wireless networks with absence of infrastructure
centralized support. Routing in MANETs is challenging task due to mobility of nodes.
Several routing protocols have been developed for Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. This paper
describes concept of security enhancement in AODV routing protocol by detection and
tolerance of attacks using secure message transmission (SMT) protocol. Present AODV
routing protocol is not secure by malicious nodes. One main challenge in design of these
networks is their vulnerability to security attacks. In this paper we study how to make node
malicious and at same we will detect malicious node in AODV protocol using Network
Simulator-2(NS-2) tool.
Load aware and load balancing using aomdv routing in manetijctet
This document discusses load aware and load balancing techniques using multipath routing in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It proposes using a location aided routing (LAR) protocol with the Ad-hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) routing protocol to identify multiple routing backbones from the source to destination nodes based on the intermediate nodes' communication and processing capabilities. This helps distribute traffic loads evenly across multiple paths to improve load balancing, reduce congestion, and enhance quality of service in the MANET.
Performance Evaluation of Routing Protocol on AODV and DSR under Wormhole Attackijcncs
This document evaluates the performance of the AODV and DSR routing protocols under wormhole attacks in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) simulation. The simulation analyzed packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and throughput with and without wormhole attacks. Without attacks, AODV performed better than DSR for packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay, while DSR had higher throughput due to using multiple paths. Under wormhole attacks, both protocols saw degraded performance, with DSR being more severely impacted due to its vulnerability to the attacks. The study aims to compare how the two reactive routing protocols are affected by wormhole attacks in MANETs.
Mobile ad hoc network is a reconfigurable network of mobile nodes connected by multi-hop wireless links and capable of operating without any fixed infrastructure support. In order to facilitate communication within such self-creating, self-organizing and self administrating network, a dynamic routing protocol is needed. The primary goal of such an ad hoc network routing protocol is to discover and establish a correct and efficient route between a pair of nodes so that messages may be delivered in a timely manner. Route construction should be done with a minimum of overhead and bandwidth consumption. This paper examines two routing protocols, both on-demand source routing, for mobile ad hoc networks– the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), an flat architecture based and the Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP), a cluster architecture based and evaluates both routing protocols in terms of packet delivery fraction, normalized routing load, average end to end delay, throughput by varying number of nodes per sq. km, traffic sources and mobility. Simulation results show that in high
mobility (pause time 0s) scenarios, CBRP outperforms DSR. CBRP scales well with increasing number of nodes.
This document summarizes research on load balancing techniques for congestion control in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It first provides background on MANETs and issues like limited bandwidth. It then reviews literature on multipath routing and load balancing, categorizing approaches based on metrics like available bandwidth. The document proposes using acknowledgement times to estimate available bandwidth and distribute traffic to avoid congestion across multiple paths. By adapting sending rates based on estimated available bandwidth, this could minimize congestion in the network.
Simulation based Evaluation of a Simple Channel Distribution Scheme for MANETsIOSR Journals
This document presents a proposed multi-channel distribution scheme for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and evaluates it through simulation. The proposed scheme assigns channels to nodes based on their node IDs to avoid control overhead from time synchronization. While neighboring nodes on the same channel is possible, the probability is low given random node distribution. The proposed scheme is compared to a single-channel scheme in ns-2 simulations. Results show the proposed technique has better performance.
Qos Enabled Communication Support over Multicast Ad Hoc Networks: An OverviewIJERA Editor
This document provides an overview of approaches to support quality of service (QoS) in multicast mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It discusses the challenges of supporting QoS in multicast routing protocols for MANETs, including reliability, efficiency, resource management, scalability, control overhead, and mobility. It also classifies several multicast routing protocols based on their supported topology (e.g. source tree, shared tree, mesh) and maintenance approach (hard, soft). The document reviews research on QoS-enabled multicast routing protocols for MANETs, summarizing protocols that use bee colony-based routing, entropy-based routing to select stable links, and fuzzy agent-based routing.
Multipath Routing Protocol by Breadth First Search Algorithm in Wireless Mesh...IOSR Journals
This document proposes a multipath routing protocol for wireless mesh networks that uses a parallel layer-based approach and breadth-first search algorithm to discover multiple paths between a source and destination. It organizes nodes into layers based on distance from the destination and performs iterative breadth-first searches to find partial paths connecting nodes in lower layers, storing the partial paths. This process repeats until reaching the destination to find all possible paths. The primary path is then elected using an Expected Forwarding Counter metric to select the most reliable path. The protocol was evaluated in NS-2 and showed improved throughput, delivery ratio, and reduced delay compared to other protocols.
This document discusses secure routing in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins with an introduction to MANETs and wireless sensor networks, and some of the key issues in designing them including routing and security. The document then discusses several routing protocols for MANETs, including DSDV and WRP. It also analyzes security threats to routing like black hole attacks, wormhole attacks, and selfish node behavior. The document proposes analyzing routing protocols like OLSR to understand their security vulnerabilities. Finally, it discusses future research directions like generalizing the security threat analysis methodology to other routing protocols and types.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKSijcax
A Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a collection of mobile nodes that want to communicate without any pre-determined infrastructure and fixed organization of available links. Each node in MANET operates as a router, forwarding information packets for other mobile nodes. There are many routing protocols that possess different performance levels in different scenarios. The main task is to evaluate the existing routing
protocols and finding by comparing them the best one. In this article we compare AODV, DSR, DSDV, OLSR and DYMO routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) to specify the best operational conditions for each MANETs protocol. We study these five MANETs routing protocols by different simulations in NS-2 simulator. We describe that pause time parameter affect their performance. This performance analysis is measured in terms of Packet Delivery Ratio, Average End-to-End Delay, Normalized Routing Load and Average Throughput.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is a team of researchers not publication services or private publications running the journals for monetary benefits, we are association of scientists and academia who focus only on supporting authors who want to publish their work. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online, all the articles will be archived for real time access.
Our journal system primarily aims to bring out the research talent and the works done by sciaentists, academia, engineers, practitioners, scholars, post graduate students of engineering and science. This journal aims to cover the scientific research in a broader sense and not publishing a niche area of research facilitating researchers from various verticals to publish their papers. It is also aimed to provide a platform for the researchers to publish in a shorter of time, enabling them to continue further All articles published are freely available to scientific researchers in the Government agencies,educators and the general public. We are taking serious efforts to promote our journal across the globe in various ways, we are sure that our journal will act as a scientific platform for all researchers to publish their works online.
IJCER (www.ijceronline.com) International Journal of computational Engineerin...ijceronline
This document summarizes a research paper that evaluates the performance of two routing protocols (AODV and DSDV) under different traffic patterns (TCP and CBR) in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) simulation. The paper describes MANET characteristics and challenges for routing. It provides an overview of reactive (AODV), proactive (DSDV), and hybrid routing protocols. It also defines TCP and CBR traffic patterns. The research aims to analyze and compare the packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay of AODV and DSDV under different traffic loads using the NS-2 simulator. Preliminary results show that reactive protocols perform better in terms of these metrics.
This document analyzes and compares different routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins with background on MANETs and their characteristics, such as dynamic topology and limited resources. It then classifies routing protocols as either proactive (table-driven) or reactive (on-demand) and describes several examples of each type. Proactive protocols maintain up-to-date routing tables through periodic updates but incur more overhead. Reactive protocols discover routes on demand but add latency. The document provides details on popular protocols like DSDV, AODV, DSR and TORA, explaining their route discovery, maintenance and metrics.
Low Leakage Low Ground Bounce Noise Power Gating Techniques for FPGAsIOSR Journals
This document analyzes and compares different power gating techniques to reduce leakage current and ground bounce noise in FPGAs. It discusses stacking power gating, diode-based stacking power gating, and diode-based staggered phase damping techniques applied to a benchmark 74182 carry look ahead adder circuit implemented as a lookup table (LUT) in FPGAs. Simulation results show that the diode-based staggered phase damping technique provides up to 99% reduction in ground bounce noise and 75% reduction in leakage current. Performance analysis of the LUT implemented on different FPGAs also shows the diode-based staggered phase damping technique to be most effective at reducing leakage current and ground bounce noise.
Ab Initio Study of the Electronic and Phonon Band Structure Of the Mixed Vale...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes an ab initio study of the electronic band structure and phonon dispersion of silver oxide (AgO) using density functional theory calculations. The LDA+U method predicted AgO to be a semimetal, while the Hartree-Fock calculation predicted a semiconductor with an indirect bandgap of 1.53 eV, consistent with experiments. Phonon calculations showed small splitting between longitudinal and transverse optical modes for higher oxygen vibrations, explaining why Raman spectroscopy could not observe these modes. The study provides insights into the electronic properties and vibrational behavior of the mixed valence silver oxide.
A Review on Image Inpainting to Restore ImageIOSR Journals
This document reviews various techniques for image inpainting to restore damaged images. It discusses diffusion-based inpainting and texture synthesis approaches. Specific techniques covered include:
1. PDE-based inpainting using isophote lines from surrounding areas.
2. Multiresolution inpainting dividing images into blocks and considering variance, percentage of damaged pixels.
3. Exemplar-based completion using image fragments from global examples.
4. Inpainting of natural scenes limiting search horizontally using Fourier transforms.
The document compares advantages and disadvantages of each approach for efficiently and accurately restoring images. Wavelet transforms and morphological component analysis are also reviewed for inpainting texture and cartoon layers
Open Source Software Survivability Analysis Using Communication Pattern Valid...IOSR Journals
This document proposes a communication validation tool to analyze the communication patterns of open source software developer communities. The tool would calculate metrics like contribution index, community betweenness centrality, and community density for the Apache Qpid open source project. It outlines formulas to measure these metrics from data extracted from emails between developers, such as number of messages sent and received. The metrics are intended to provide insight into developer contributions, the flow of information between developers, and the cohesiveness of the community over time.
A Hierarchical Feature Set optimization for effective code change based Defec...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes research on using support vector machines (SVMs) for software defect prediction. It analyzes 11 datasets from NASA projects containing code metrics and defect information for modules. The researchers preprocessed the data by removing duplicate/inconsistent instances, constant attributes, and balancing the datasets. They used SVMs with 5-fold cross validation to classify modules as defective or non-defective, achieving an average accuracy of 70% across the datasets. The researchers conclude SVMs can effectively predict defects but note earlier studies using the NASA data may have overstated capabilities due to insufficient data preprocessing.
Some Aspects of Stress Distribution and Effect of Voids Having Different Gase...IOSR Journals
1) The document analyzes the stress distribution and effect of voids with different gases in MV power cables through finite element modeling. It studies the electric field and temperature distribution within cable insulation containing voids.
2) Cylindrical voids are found to have higher electric stress than spherical or elliptical voids. Among gases, oxygen consumption during partial discharge causes greater temperature rise and faster breakdown than nitrogen.
3) The analysis examines factors like void shape, position, and size that influence stress distribution and partial discharge inception voltage. Nearer and larger voids have lower inception voltages. Oxygen consumption leads to uniform erosion and higher temperatures, making its effect greater than other gases.
Improved Fuzzy Control Strategy for Power Quality in Distributed Generation’s...IOSR Journals
This document describes an improved fuzzy control strategy for a single-phase inverter used in distributed power generation systems to improve power quality. The control strategy allows the inverter to generate active power from a renewable energy source while also compensating for reactive power and current harmonics from local nonlinear loads. The control scheme uses a reference current generator based on sinusoidal signal integrators and instantaneous reactive power theory. It also employs a dedicated repetitive current controller with a fuzzy controller. Simulation results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed solution for active power generation, reactive power compensation, and harmonic compensation when connected to the grid.
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the performance of three mobile ad hoc network (MANET) routing protocols: AODV, DSR, and DSDV. Through network simulations varying the number of nodes and connections, the paper evaluates the routing protocols based on average end-to-end delay, normalized routing load, packet delivery fraction, and throughput. The simulation results show that AODV generally has better performance than DSR and DSDV in terms of lower delay, higher packet delivery, and better throughput, especially as the network size increases. However, DSDV maintains more consistent performance than the reactive protocols as network conditions change.
INVESTIGATING MULTILAYER OMEGA-TYPE NETWORKS OPERATING WITH THE CUT-THROUGH T...IJCNCJournal
The continuous increase in the complexity of data networks has motivated the development of more effective Multistage Interconnection Networks (MINs) as important factors in providing higher data transfer rates in various switching divisions. In this paper, semi-layer omega-class networks operating with a cut-through forwarding technique are chosen as test-bed subjects for detailed evaluation, and this network architecture is modelled, inspected, and simulated. The results are examined for relevant singlelayer omega networks operating with cut-through or ‘store and forward’ forwarding techniques. Two series of experiments are carried out: one concerns the case of uniform traffic, while the other is related to hotspot traffic. The results quantify the way in which this network outperforms the corresponding singlelayer network architectures for the same network size and buffer size. Furthermore, the effects of the dimensions of the switch elements and their corresponding reliability on the overall interconnection system are investigated, and the complexity and the relevant cost are examined. The data yielded by this investigation can be valuable to MIN engineers and can allow them to achieve more productive networks with lower overall implementation costs.
Security Enhancement in AODV Routing Protocol for MANETsidescitation
Adhoc networks are a new wireless networking paradigm for mobile hosts.
Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) are wireless networks with absence of infrastructure
centralized support. Routing in MANETs is challenging task due to mobility of nodes.
Several routing protocols have been developed for Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. This paper
describes concept of security enhancement in AODV routing protocol by detection and
tolerance of attacks using secure message transmission (SMT) protocol. Present AODV
routing protocol is not secure by malicious nodes. One main challenge in design of these
networks is their vulnerability to security attacks. In this paper we study how to make node
malicious and at same we will detect malicious node in AODV protocol using Network
Simulator-2(NS-2) tool.
Load aware and load balancing using aomdv routing in manetijctet
This document discusses load aware and load balancing techniques using multipath routing in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It proposes using a location aided routing (LAR) protocol with the Ad-hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) routing protocol to identify multiple routing backbones from the source to destination nodes based on the intermediate nodes' communication and processing capabilities. This helps distribute traffic loads evenly across multiple paths to improve load balancing, reduce congestion, and enhance quality of service in the MANET.
Performance Evaluation of Routing Protocol on AODV and DSR under Wormhole Attackijcncs
This document evaluates the performance of the AODV and DSR routing protocols under wormhole attacks in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) simulation. The simulation analyzed packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and throughput with and without wormhole attacks. Without attacks, AODV performed better than DSR for packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay, while DSR had higher throughput due to using multiple paths. Under wormhole attacks, both protocols saw degraded performance, with DSR being more severely impacted due to its vulnerability to the attacks. The study aims to compare how the two reactive routing protocols are affected by wormhole attacks in MANETs.
Mobile ad hoc network is a reconfigurable network of mobile nodes connected by multi-hop wireless links and capable of operating without any fixed infrastructure support. In order to facilitate communication within such self-creating, self-organizing and self administrating network, a dynamic routing protocol is needed. The primary goal of such an ad hoc network routing protocol is to discover and establish a correct and efficient route between a pair of nodes so that messages may be delivered in a timely manner. Route construction should be done with a minimum of overhead and bandwidth consumption. This paper examines two routing protocols, both on-demand source routing, for mobile ad hoc networks– the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), an flat architecture based and the Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP), a cluster architecture based and evaluates both routing protocols in terms of packet delivery fraction, normalized routing load, average end to end delay, throughput by varying number of nodes per sq. km, traffic sources and mobility. Simulation results show that in high
mobility (pause time 0s) scenarios, CBRP outperforms DSR. CBRP scales well with increasing number of nodes.
This document summarizes research on load balancing techniques for congestion control in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It first provides background on MANETs and issues like limited bandwidth. It then reviews literature on multipath routing and load balancing, categorizing approaches based on metrics like available bandwidth. The document proposes using acknowledgement times to estimate available bandwidth and distribute traffic to avoid congestion across multiple paths. By adapting sending rates based on estimated available bandwidth, this could minimize congestion in the network.
Simulation based Evaluation of a Simple Channel Distribution Scheme for MANETsIOSR Journals
This document presents a proposed multi-channel distribution scheme for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and evaluates it through simulation. The proposed scheme assigns channels to nodes based on their node IDs to avoid control overhead from time synchronization. While neighboring nodes on the same channel is possible, the probability is low given random node distribution. The proposed scheme is compared to a single-channel scheme in ns-2 simulations. Results show the proposed technique has better performance.
Qos Enabled Communication Support over Multicast Ad Hoc Networks: An OverviewIJERA Editor
This document provides an overview of approaches to support quality of service (QoS) in multicast mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It discusses the challenges of supporting QoS in multicast routing protocols for MANETs, including reliability, efficiency, resource management, scalability, control overhead, and mobility. It also classifies several multicast routing protocols based on their supported topology (e.g. source tree, shared tree, mesh) and maintenance approach (hard, soft). The document reviews research on QoS-enabled multicast routing protocols for MANETs, summarizing protocols that use bee colony-based routing, entropy-based routing to select stable links, and fuzzy agent-based routing.
Multipath Routing Protocol by Breadth First Search Algorithm in Wireless Mesh...IOSR Journals
This document proposes a multipath routing protocol for wireless mesh networks that uses a parallel layer-based approach and breadth-first search algorithm to discover multiple paths between a source and destination. It organizes nodes into layers based on distance from the destination and performs iterative breadth-first searches to find partial paths connecting nodes in lower layers, storing the partial paths. This process repeats until reaching the destination to find all possible paths. The primary path is then elected using an Expected Forwarding Counter metric to select the most reliable path. The protocol was evaluated in NS-2 and showed improved throughput, delivery ratio, and reduced delay compared to other protocols.
This document discusses secure routing in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins with an introduction to MANETs and wireless sensor networks, and some of the key issues in designing them including routing and security. The document then discusses several routing protocols for MANETs, including DSDV and WRP. It also analyzes security threats to routing like black hole attacks, wormhole attacks, and selfish node behavior. The document proposes analyzing routing protocols like OLSR to understand their security vulnerabilities. Finally, it discusses future research directions like generalizing the security threat analysis methodology to other routing protocols and types.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKSijcax
A Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a collection of mobile nodes that want to communicate without any pre-determined infrastructure and fixed organization of available links. Each node in MANET operates as a router, forwarding information packets for other mobile nodes. There are many routing protocols that possess different performance levels in different scenarios. The main task is to evaluate the existing routing
protocols and finding by comparing them the best one. In this article we compare AODV, DSR, DSDV, OLSR and DYMO routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) to specify the best operational conditions for each MANETs protocol. We study these five MANETs routing protocols by different simulations in NS-2 simulator. We describe that pause time parameter affect their performance. This performance analysis is measured in terms of Packet Delivery Ratio, Average End-to-End Delay, Normalized Routing Load and Average Throughput.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) aims to cover the latest outstanding developments in the field of all Engineering Technologies & science.
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IJCER (www.ijceronline.com) International Journal of computational Engineerin...ijceronline
This document summarizes a research paper that evaluates the performance of two routing protocols (AODV and DSDV) under different traffic patterns (TCP and CBR) in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) simulation. The paper describes MANET characteristics and challenges for routing. It provides an overview of reactive (AODV), proactive (DSDV), and hybrid routing protocols. It also defines TCP and CBR traffic patterns. The research aims to analyze and compare the packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay of AODV and DSDV under different traffic loads using the NS-2 simulator. Preliminary results show that reactive protocols perform better in terms of these metrics.
This document analyzes and compares different routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins with background on MANETs and their characteristics, such as dynamic topology and limited resources. It then classifies routing protocols as either proactive (table-driven) or reactive (on-demand) and describes several examples of each type. Proactive protocols maintain up-to-date routing tables through periodic updates but incur more overhead. Reactive protocols discover routes on demand but add latency. The document provides details on popular protocols like DSDV, AODV, DSR and TORA, explaining their route discovery, maintenance and metrics.
Low Leakage Low Ground Bounce Noise Power Gating Techniques for FPGAsIOSR Journals
This document analyzes and compares different power gating techniques to reduce leakage current and ground bounce noise in FPGAs. It discusses stacking power gating, diode-based stacking power gating, and diode-based staggered phase damping techniques applied to a benchmark 74182 carry look ahead adder circuit implemented as a lookup table (LUT) in FPGAs. Simulation results show that the diode-based staggered phase damping technique provides up to 99% reduction in ground bounce noise and 75% reduction in leakage current. Performance analysis of the LUT implemented on different FPGAs also shows the diode-based staggered phase damping technique to be most effective at reducing leakage current and ground bounce noise.
Ab Initio Study of the Electronic and Phonon Band Structure Of the Mixed Vale...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes an ab initio study of the electronic band structure and phonon dispersion of silver oxide (AgO) using density functional theory calculations. The LDA+U method predicted AgO to be a semimetal, while the Hartree-Fock calculation predicted a semiconductor with an indirect bandgap of 1.53 eV, consistent with experiments. Phonon calculations showed small splitting between longitudinal and transverse optical modes for higher oxygen vibrations, explaining why Raman spectroscopy could not observe these modes. The study provides insights into the electronic properties and vibrational behavior of the mixed valence silver oxide.
A Review on Image Inpainting to Restore ImageIOSR Journals
This document reviews various techniques for image inpainting to restore damaged images. It discusses diffusion-based inpainting and texture synthesis approaches. Specific techniques covered include:
1. PDE-based inpainting using isophote lines from surrounding areas.
2. Multiresolution inpainting dividing images into blocks and considering variance, percentage of damaged pixels.
3. Exemplar-based completion using image fragments from global examples.
4. Inpainting of natural scenes limiting search horizontally using Fourier transforms.
The document compares advantages and disadvantages of each approach for efficiently and accurately restoring images. Wavelet transforms and morphological component analysis are also reviewed for inpainting texture and cartoon layers
Open Source Software Survivability Analysis Using Communication Pattern Valid...IOSR Journals
This document proposes a communication validation tool to analyze the communication patterns of open source software developer communities. The tool would calculate metrics like contribution index, community betweenness centrality, and community density for the Apache Qpid open source project. It outlines formulas to measure these metrics from data extracted from emails between developers, such as number of messages sent and received. The metrics are intended to provide insight into developer contributions, the flow of information between developers, and the cohesiveness of the community over time.
A Hierarchical Feature Set optimization for effective code change based Defec...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes research on using support vector machines (SVMs) for software defect prediction. It analyzes 11 datasets from NASA projects containing code metrics and defect information for modules. The researchers preprocessed the data by removing duplicate/inconsistent instances, constant attributes, and balancing the datasets. They used SVMs with 5-fold cross validation to classify modules as defective or non-defective, achieving an average accuracy of 70% across the datasets. The researchers conclude SVMs can effectively predict defects but note earlier studies using the NASA data may have overstated capabilities due to insufficient data preprocessing.
Some Aspects of Stress Distribution and Effect of Voids Having Different Gase...IOSR Journals
1) The document analyzes the stress distribution and effect of voids with different gases in MV power cables through finite element modeling. It studies the electric field and temperature distribution within cable insulation containing voids.
2) Cylindrical voids are found to have higher electric stress than spherical or elliptical voids. Among gases, oxygen consumption during partial discharge causes greater temperature rise and faster breakdown than nitrogen.
3) The analysis examines factors like void shape, position, and size that influence stress distribution and partial discharge inception voltage. Nearer and larger voids have lower inception voltages. Oxygen consumption leads to uniform erosion and higher temperatures, making its effect greater than other gases.
Improved Fuzzy Control Strategy for Power Quality in Distributed Generation’s...IOSR Journals
This document describes an improved fuzzy control strategy for a single-phase inverter used in distributed power generation systems to improve power quality. The control strategy allows the inverter to generate active power from a renewable energy source while also compensating for reactive power and current harmonics from local nonlinear loads. The control scheme uses a reference current generator based on sinusoidal signal integrators and instantaneous reactive power theory. It also employs a dedicated repetitive current controller with a fuzzy controller. Simulation results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed solution for active power generation, reactive power compensation, and harmonic compensation when connected to the grid.
Inflammatory Conditions Mimicking Tumours In Calabar: A 30 Year Study (1978-2...IOSR Journals
1. The document discusses different image fusion techniques, specifically wavelet transform and curvelet transform based fusion.
2. Wavelet transform is commonly used for image fusion due to its simplicity and ability to preserve time-frequency details. Curvelet transform is better for fusing images with curved edges.
3. The paper compares fusion results of medical images like MR and CT using wavelet and curvelet transforms, finding that curvelet transform provides superior results in metrics like entropy and peak signal-to-noise ratio.
Latest Developments in WirelessNetworking and Wireless SecurityIOSR Journals
This document discusses recent developments in wireless networking and wireless security. It describes enhancements to wireless standards including 802.11ac which provides speeds up to 1 Gbps, 802.11n which provides speeds up to 600 Mbps, and research achieving speeds of 40 Gbps over 1 km. It also discusses DARPA's efforts to develop more resilient military wireless networks and Google's plans to expand wireless networks in developing areas. The document outlines various methods for securing wireless networks including using WPA2 encryption, changing default passwords, hiding the SSID, limiting DHCP assignments, and disabling remote administration.
Improvement of QoS Contained by AODV Routing Protocol On the Basis of Varying...IOSR Journals
The document proposes improvements to the AODV routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks to enhance quality of service. It introduces two techniques: 1) Using a dynamic time-to-live value rather than a fixed value to establish connections over longer routes. 2) Implementing a varying queue length technique where the queue size increases instead of dropping packets if the node buffer is full, to minimize packet loss. The performance of the improved AODV protocol is evaluated based on metrics like packet delivery ratio, routing overhead, and throughput, and shows better results compared to the normal AODV protocol.
Face Recognition System under Varying Lighting ConditionsIOSR Journals
The document discusses a face recognition system that is robust to varying lighting conditions. It proposes combining illumination normalization preprocessing, local texture-based face representations like Local Binary Patterns (LBP) and Local Ternary Patterns (LTP), and distance transform-based matching. The preprocessing aims to eliminate lighting variations while preserving important appearance details. Local patterns make the representations less sensitive to noise. Experiments show the method outperforms other preprocessors across datasets and lighting conditions, providing a 88.1% verification rate at 0.1% false acceptance. The system is implemented in MATLAB.
A Study of Various Graphical Passwords Authentication Schemes Using Ai Hans P...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes and compares various graphical password authentication schemes that use recognition-based and recall-based approaches. Recognition-based schemes require users to identify pre-selected images during login, while recall-based schemes require users to reproduce a password they created. The document discusses specific schemes such as Passfaces, Déjà Vu, Draw-a-Secret, and PassPoints and analyzes the strengths and limitations of each in terms of usability, security, and password space. It concludes that recall-based schemes have advantages over text passwords but also have usability drawbacks such as taking more time to create and enter passwords.
Survey of Real Time Scheduling AlgorithmsIOSR Journals
This document summarizes and reviews real-time scheduling algorithms. It discusses both static and dynamic scheduling algorithms for real-time tasks on uniprocessors and multiprocessors. The document reviews algorithms such as Earliest Deadline First, Least Laxity First, and Modified Instantaneous Utilization Factor Scheduling. It concludes that Modified Instantaneous Utilization Factor Scheduling provides better results than previous algorithms in terms of context switching, response time, and CPU utilization for uniprocessor scheduling.
Application of SVM Technique for Three Phase Three Leg Ac/Ac Converter TopologyIOSR Journals
This paper presents a simulation of a three-phase three-leg AC/AC converter topology using nine IGBTs and space vector pulse width modulation (SVM) technique. The proposed topology reduces the number of switches compared to conventional back-to-back and matrix converters. Simulation results show the converter provides sinusoidal input and output voltages with unity power factor under constant frequency and variable frequency operation. Experimental results from a 5kVA prototype verify the validity of the proposed scheme.
Disposition Pattern of Sulphur Functional Groups in High Sulphur Ledo Coals o...IOSR Journals
This document discusses a study of the distribution of sulfur functional groups in high-sulfur Ledo coals from Assam, India using Temperature Programmed Reduction (TPR). TPR studies were conducted on Ledo coal and model sulfur compounds between 190-6200°C in hydrogen gas. Six hydrogen sulfide evolutions were observed from Ledo coal, which were assigned to specific sulfur functional groups based on the TPR results from model compounds. These included mercaptan/disulfide, thiol, aromatic thioether, thiophene, pyrite, and complex thiophene groups. Additional experiments estimated the thioketonic sulfur content in Ledo coal to be 1.59%. Infrared spectroscopy was also used
Survivability Issues in Optical Wavalength Division Multiplexing (WDM) NetworkIOSR Journals
This document provides a survey of survivability issues in optical wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) networks. It discusses various protection techniques used in single and multi-domain WDM networks including link-based, path-based, and p-cycle protection. It reviews existing algorithms for survivability against multi-link failures such as LBSR, ESPP, and LSPP. It then proposes a new algorithm that combines p-cycle protection and wavelength assignment with Dijkstra's algorithm to reduce blocking probability. The document concludes that p-cycle protection is an effective technique and the proposed algorithm aims to find the shortest lightpath and optimize resource usage.
The document evaluates the performance of 5 routing protocols (AODV, DSR, TORA, OLSR, GRP) in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) using the OPNET simulator. Simulations were run with 30, 60, and 90 nodes using email and video conferencing applications. Performance was analyzed based on throughput, delay, load, and data dropped. In general, GRP and OLSR had the lowest delay, DSR and GRP had the lowest load, and OLSR and AODV had the highest throughput, while TORA often had the worst performance based on the metrics. The evaluation provides insights into the relative performance of the routing protocols under different conditions in a MANET
Influence of Different Soil Management Practices On Soil Properties and Its I...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes a study on the influence of different land management practices (forest land, golf course, continuous cropping) on soil properties in southeastern Nigeria. Soil samples were collected from the different land use systems and analyzed. Results showed higher levels of exchangeable bases, organic matter, total nitrogen, and available phosphorus in the top 0-20cm soil layer compared to deeper layers, and forest land generally had higher values than the other land uses. Bulk density decreased and total porosity increased with continuous cropping compared to forest land and golf course. Overall, continuous cultivation was found to deplete soil nutrients and reduce soil productivity more than the other land management practices studied.
The Electrochemical Synthesis and Corrosion Inhibitive Nature of Di N-Propyl ...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes the electrochemical synthesis and corrosion inhibiting properties of a poly N-methyl aniline coating doped with di N-propyl malonic acid on stainless steel. Cyclic voltammetry was used to electrochemically polymerize N-methyl aniline on stainless steel electrodes in a solution containing di N-propyl malonic acid. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and potentiodynamic polarization techniques showed that the resulting polymer coating provided excellent corrosion protection for the stainless steel in 0.5M sulfuric acid solution, with inhibition efficiencies above 98%.
A Mat Lab built software application for similar image retrievalIOSR Journals
This document describes a Matlab software application for similar image retrieval that uses shape and color features. It discusses extracting edge features through horizontal, vertical, diagonal and anti-diagonal masks. It also discusses extracting color features by converting images to HSV color space and generating 128-bin color histograms. Features of images in a database are stored in a 'features.mat' file. For a query image, its features are compared to those in the database using Euclidean distance to find similar images. The most similar images based on feature similarity are displayed at the top of the results. The software provides image retrieval based on fusing color and shape features.
This document summarizes research on improving the robustness of the MAODV multicast routing protocol in mobile ad hoc networks. It discusses how MAODV uses a tree structure for routing but lacks redundancy, hurting performance in high load or dynamic networks. The document proposes a new MAODV-BB protocol that combines tree and mesh structures by using group messages to update shorter branches and construct a multicast tree with backup branches. This improves robustness without extra overhead.
SCALABLE AND ROBUST LOCATION AWARE MULTICAST ALGORITHM (SRLAMA) FOR MANET ijdpsjournal
An ad hoc network is composed of mobile nodes without the intervention of any fixed infrastructure or central administration. Multicasting is intended for group-oriented communication. A lot many applications depend on one-to-many or many-to-many dissemination of the information. However, in ad hoc environment, multicasting protocols are faced with the challenge of producing multihop routes under dynamic topology and bandwidth constraints. Due to the dynamic topology of MANETs it is very difficult to build optimal multicast trees and maintaining group membership, making even more challenging to
implement scalable and robust multicast in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANET). A Scalable and Robust
Location Aware Multicast Algorithm, called SRLAMA, for mobile ad hoc networks is presented in the paper that is based on creation of shared tree using the physical location of the nodes for the multicast sessions. It constructs a shared bi-directional multicast tree with an alternate root that avoids the
network partitioning in case of primary root failurte, which results in better performance even than a shared tree. The algorithm uses the concept of small overlapped zones around each node for employing proactive routing with in the smaller zone. Protocol is based on the location information obtained
employing relevant data structure, which effectively reduces the overheads for route searching and shared multicast tree maintenance. It employs a preventive route reconfiguration to avoid the latency in case of link breakages and to prevent the network from splitting.
A SURVEY OF ENHANCED ROUTING PROTOCOLS FOR MANETspijans
This document summarizes and surveys several enhanced routing protocols that have been developed for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins by providing background on routing challenges in MANETs and classifications of routing protocols. It then describes several traditional and widely used routing protocols, including DSDV, OLSR, TORA, DSR, and AODV. The document focuses on summarizing several new routing protocols that have been proposed to improve upon existing protocols. It discusses protocols such as BAWB-DSR, CCSR, RAMP, AODV-SBA, CBRP-R, and CBTRP - noting techniques, advantages, and disadvantages of each. The overall purpose is to review
A Survey of Enhanced Routing Protocols for Manetspijans
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) form a class of dynamic multi-hop networks consisting of a set of
mobile nodes that intercommunicate on shared wireless channels. MANETs are self-organizing and selfconfiguring multi-hop wireless networks, where the network structure changes dynamically due to the node
mobility. There exists no fixed topology due to the mobility of nodes, interference, multipath propagation
and path loss. Hence efficient dynamic routing protocols are required for these networks to function
properly. Many routing protocols have been developed to accomplish this task. In this paper we survey
various new routing protocols that have been developed as extensions or advanced versions of previously
existing routing protocols for MANETs such as DSR, AODV, OLSR etc.
A comparative analysis on qos multicast routing protocols in MANETsIOSR Journals
Abstract: Simultaneous transmission of data from one sender to multiple receivers is called multicasting.
Several widely used applications require multicasting at least at the logical level. Examples include audio video
teleconferencing, real time video streaming and the maintenance of distributed databases. In many cases it is
advantageous to implement multicasting at the level of the routing algorithm (other approaches would be oneto-all
unicast or the implementation of multicasting at the application layer). In this paper we are presenting a
comparative analysis on various multicast routing protocols in adhoc networks.
Keywords: multicasting, multicast protocols,dynamic core, performance evaluation,Qos Parameters
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
This document summarizes an efficient geographic multicast protocol for mobile ad hoc networks. It proposes using identity-based and threshold three-level key management with elliptic curve cryptography to provide security. The protocol divides the network into virtual zones for scalable group communication and membership management. It aims to solve challenges of multicasting in dynamic ad hoc networks more efficiently than conventional tree-based or mesh-based protocols.
The document provides an overview of routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It discusses that MANETs are self-configuring networks without centralized control where nodes can act as routers to forward packets. The document classifies routing protocols as proactive (table-driven), reactive (on-demand), or hybrid. It describes examples of proactive routing protocols like DSDV, OLSR, and WRP that maintain up-to-date routing tables and share updates periodically or when changes occur. The document also discusses reactive protocols establish routes on demand and hybrid protocols that combine aspects of proactive and reactive approaches.
The document provides an overview of routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It discusses the characteristics of MANETs and challenges in routing. It classifies routing protocols into three categories: proactive, reactive, and hybrid. Proactive protocols continuously maintain up-to-date routing information through periodic updates. Reactive protocols find routes on demand via route discovery. Hybrid protocols incorporate aspects of both proactive and reactive routing. Examples of protocols from each category are described and compared, including DSDV, AODV, DSR, ZRP, and CEDAR. The document concludes routing in MANET is an active area of research with the goal of protocols responding rapidly to topological changes.
IRJET-A Review Paper on Secure Routing Technique for MANETSIRJET Journal
This document reviews secure routing techniques for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins with an introduction to MANETs and discusses their decentralized nature and infrastructureless architecture. It then describes different routing protocols for MANETs including proactive, reactive, and hybrid protocols. The document outlines various attacks possible in MANETs such as active and passive attacks. It provides details about the jellyfish attack, which aims to reduce network performance by disrupting TCP connections. The literature survey presented summarizes several papers analyzing and comparing the performance of various MANET routing protocols under different attacks such as the jellyfish attack. The conclusion is that secure and efficient routing techniques are needed to detect and isolate malicious nodes in MANETs.
T HE I MPACT OF TCP C ONGESTION W INDOW S IZE ON THE P ERFORMANCE E VA...ijwmn
A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a temporary coll
ection of mobile nodes randomly moved within a
limited terrain area. The nodes are connected to fo
rm a wireless network without use any communication
infrastructure. Because of the limiting resources o
f MANET nodes, multiple hops
scheme is proposed for
data exchange
across the network. Varieties of mobile ad hoc rout
ing protocols have been developed to
support the multi-hop scheme of ad hoc networks. A
popular Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
provides a reliable connection in a computer networ
k environment; it sets its congestion window size i
n
response to the behavior of the network to achieve
the best performance. This work aims to investigate
and
compare the MANET protocol
performance, such as DSDV, AODV and DSR in terms of
network
throughput, average routing load, the packet delive
ry ratio (PDR), and average end-to-end delay by
varying the maximum congestion window size. Our si
mulation has been implemented using a well-known
NS-2.35 network simulator. The simulated results sh
ow that the demonstrates of the concepts of MANET
routing protocols with respect to TCP congestion wi
ndow size in MANET environment
Comparison of Various Unicast-Multicast Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad-Hoc N...Editor IJMTER
A Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) is a self configuring network which consists of
mobile nodes with no permanent infrastructure. In a MANETs, there is no difference between a host
node and a router so that all nodes can be source plus forwarders of traffic. The task of finding routes
in Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) is an important factor in determining the efficiency of any
MANET routing protocols. This paper describes about the basic idea of different routing protocols
and its efficient use in MANET. There are several routing protocols based on UNICAST and
MULTICAST. This paper will conclude the main characteristics of these protocols with comparison
and suggest the best suited protocol for particular topology or network.
Multipath Fault Tolerant Routing Protocol in MANET pijans
Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) consist of a collection of wireless mobile nodes which dynamically
exchange data among themselves without the reliance on a fixed base station or a wired backbone network
and it the makes the routing a crucial issue to the design of the MANET. Multiple path routing protocols
are shown to be performance-effective alternatives over single-path routing for ad hoc networks and it
represents a promising routing method for wireless mobile ad hoc networks. Multi-path routing achieves
load balancing and is more resilient to route failures..In this paper we propose an energy efficient
multipath fault tolerant routing protocol to improve the reliability of data routing in Mobile ad hoc
networks. The proposed RFTA is a multi objective routing protocol that meets diverse application
requirements by considering the changing conditions of the network. The efficiency of the proposed
protocol has been evaluated on different scenarios and there has been a noticeable improvement in the
packet delivery ratio and also in the reduction of end-to-end delay comparing to SMR,SMS and MDSR.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
This document analyzes and compares different routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It begins with background on MANETs and their characteristics. It then classifies routing protocols into proactive (table-driven) and reactive (on-demand) categories. For each category, several representative protocols are described in detail, including DSDV, WRP, CGSR, DSR, AODV, ABR, SSA, and TORA. Their routing mechanisms and approaches to route discovery and maintenance are outlined. The document aims to provide an overview of major MANET routing protocols to help determine the most suitable ones for different network conditions.
Performance Analysis of Mobile Adhoc Network Routing Protocols Over Tcppijans
In order to reduce the communication cost and time we are looking forward for successful implementation
of an infrastructure less network like Mobile Ad Hoc Network in all arena of wireless mobile
communication. But still it is a challenge to decide a most appropriate routing protocol for MANET. In
MANET there is no fixed topology due to the mobility of nodes, interference, multipath propagation and
path loss. Since MANET does not use fixed infrastructure rather it always have to find suitable router and
routing path for each communication, existing established routing protocol is not suitable for MANET to
function properly. Different Routing protocols have been proposed to meet the challenges with MANETs.
This paper evaluates the performances of four MANET routing protocols which are DSDV, AODV, DSR
and TORA over TCP, a Transport Layer Protocol. The performance metrics which are considered in this
paper are packet delivery fractions, normalized routing overload, end to end delay and throughput. DSDV
is a proactive protocol and the others are reactive protocols.
Secure Multicast Communication using Behavioural Measurement Technique in MANET Editor Jacotech
In MANET communication between two mobile nodes are carried out by routing protocol. In MANET each mobile node can directly communicate with other mobile node if both mobile nodes are within transmission range. Otherwise the nodes present in between have to forward the packets for them on network. dynamic and cooperative nature of ad hoc networks presents substantial challenges in securing and detecting attacks in these networks. In this paper we proposed a novel Intrusion Detection and Prevention Scheme (IDPS) for protecting network against Blackhole attack. During the attack, a malicious node captures the data after the positive reply of route existence. Routing in Ad hoc networks has been a challenging task ever since the wireless networks came into existence. In multicasting the sender and communicated with multiple receivers. The routing misbehavior in multicast ODMRP is secured by proposed scheme. The proposed IDPS scheme first to detect the malicious nodes and after that block the activities of malicious nodes. The performance of proposed scheme is evaluated through performance metrics that shows the attacker routing misbehavior and proposed security scheme is provides secure and
vigorous performance in presence blackhole attacker.
Mobile Ad Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol...Natasha Barnett
This document discusses a proposed Secured PPEM based Multi-Hop Strong Path Geographic Routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). The protocol aims to enhance security in MANETs by incorporating effective key management, secure neighbor detection, securing routing data, identifying malicious nodes, and eliminating them from routing tables. Simulation results show the protocol increases throughput and packet delivery ratio with a tolerable increase in routing overhead and end-to-end delay compared to existing routing protocols for MANETs.
Energy efficiency cross layer protocol for wireless mesh networkIJCNCJournal
Wireless mesh network (WMN) is a novel emerging tec
hnology that will change the world more effectively
and efficiently. It is regarded as a highly promisi
ng technology being increasingly important in mobil
e
wireless networks of the future generation. In this
paper, we consider energy management for wireless
mesh networks from a point of view that started rec
ently to attract the attention means the conservati
on of
energy for operational and the environment reasons
which is known as the Green Networking. This paper
discusses different routing protocols to establish
a protocol which considers energy efficiency. The e
xisting
protocols are compared using the basic functions of
routing and the suggest protocol is designed to
overcome some of their shortcomings. We are focusin
g on the conception of the cross-layer routing
protocol that is implemented in TDMA (Time Division
Multiple Access) wireless mesh networks based
MAC protocol.
The document provides an overview of routing protocols in mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) and enhancements to reactive protocols. It discusses the key features of MANETs and challenges like security. It describes different routing strategies including proactive, reactive, and hybrid protocols. It provides details on reactive protocols like DSR and AODV. It focuses on enhancements to DSR including the watchdog and pathrater mechanisms to detect misbehaving nodes and select more reliable routes. The document is a technical paper that evaluates routing protocols and security issues in MANETs.
Analysis of Neighbor Knowledge Based Bcast Protocol Performance For Multihop ...pijans
This document analyzes the performance of a neighbor knowledge based broadcast protocol called BCAST in mobile ad hoc networks using network simulator NS-2. It varies the number of data senders (multicast group size) and data sending rate to analyze packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, packet loss probability, and network control overhead. The simulation results show that BCAST generally performs well and provides robust performance even with high traffic loads.
Analysis of Neighbor Knowledge Based Bcast Protocol Performance For Multihop ...pijans
Reliable group communication is a challenging issue for most Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) due to
dynamic nature of wireless mobile nodes, group key establishment and management, ensuring secure
information exchange and Quality of Service (QoS) in data transfer. Recently multicast and broadcast
routing protocols are emerging for supporting QoS aware group communication. In MANETs QoS
requirements can be quantified by a set of measurable pre-specified service attributes such as packet
delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, packet loss probability, network control overhead, throughput,
bandwidth, power consumption, service coverage area etc. In this paper, the performance of a neighbor
knowledge based broadcast protocol is analyzed using different QoS metrics (packet delivery ratio, end-toend delay, packet loss probability and network control overhead). BCAST is used as broadcast protocol.
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senders (multicast group size) and data sending rate (offered traffic to the network) over QoS aware group
communication. Simulation results show that BCAST performs well in most cases and provides robust
performance even with high traffic environments.
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A Survey on Network Layer Multicast Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
1. IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering (IOSRJCE)
ISSN: 2278-0661, ISBN: 2278-8727Volume 6, Issue 6 (Nov. - Dec. 2012), PP 27-35
www.iosrjournals.org
www.iosrjournals.org 27 | Page
A Survey on Network Layer Multicast Routing Protocols for
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
Seetha.R1
, Dr.R.Saravanan2
School of Information Technology VIT University Vellore
Abstract: A Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) comprises set of mobile nodes which forms different networking
infrastructure in ad hoc manner. Multicasting a group oriented communication approach plays a vital role in
this mobile infrastructure less networks as it finds applications in major fields such as military warfare,
emergency situations, Conventions etc. This paper surveys and discusses considerable number of multicast
routing protocols of network layers as there exists several interesting tasks from formation of multicast session,
cooperation of nodes to ending of multicast session, along with its advantages and disadvantages. It also
provides various issues and challenges to be considered for designing such protocols for its use in MANET.
Keywords: Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), Multicast Routing Protocol, Tree based, Mesh based, Network
layer, Source initiated, Receiver initiated.
I. Introduction
In computer networking, multicast is the delivery of a message or information from one host to many
destination hosts. It involves transmission of data packets to a group of hosts identified by its destination
address. Use of multicast in ad hoc networks improves its performance, efficiency, reduces cost of
communication and is advantageous than multiple unicast because of scarce bandwidth and mobile nodes with
limited energy resources. MANET, dynamic, autonomous, multi hop network have various outstanding features
which includes rapid deployment, flexibility, mobility support, dynamic network topology. Thus multicast is
important for MANET where more group communication occurs.
Wired network Internet protocol multicast routing protocol such as DVMRP, MOSPF, CBT, PIM do
not perform well in ad hoc networks. These protocols establish a routing tree for a group of routing nodes for a
multicast session. Once the tree is established, packet sent traverses each node and each link only once. Such a
tree structure is not suitable for ad hoc networks where the structure will break when the nodes moves away and
needs to be reconstructed continuously as connectivity changes. Maintaining a routing tree for multicasting
packets, in the underlying topology changing frequently, can earn substantial control traffic. Therefore multicast
protocols for static wired networks cannot be used for ad hoc wireless networks.
II. Motivation
The major aim of this survey paper is to provide the basic idea of multicasting and its protocols for
network layers, its issues and challenges in MANET. The multicast routing protocols discussed are classified
based on its structure used, operations, maintenance mechanism and functionalities. The paper is categorized as
follows: section 3 discusses the multicast protocol architecture; section 4 discusses briefly classification and
working mechanism of multicast routing protocols for network layers, section 5 gives summary and conclusion
and finally in section 6 issues and challenges for designing multicast protocol is discussed as a part of future
work.
III. Architecture reference model for multicast routing protocol
The multicasting in ad hoc networks has three layers in the network protocol stack:
Medium Access Control (MAC) layer: It provides transmission and reception of packets to the above
layers and also arbitrates access to the channel. MAC layer has three modules:
Transmission module: includes arbitration module and schedules transmission.
Receiver module: receives packets for upper layers.
Neighbor list handler: maintains list of all neighbor nodes.
Routing layer: This layer is responsible for forming and maintaining the unicast session/ multicast group.
It uses the following modules:
Unicast routing information handler
Multicast information handler
Forwarding module: Forwards packets either to the neighboring node or application layer based on the
information provided by the multicast information handler.
2. A survey on Network layer Multicast Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad hoc networks
www.iosrjournals.org 28 | Page
Tree or Mesh construction module: This module constructs multicast topology.
Session maintenance module: handles link breaks.
Route cache maintenance module: updates and maintains information about the packets routed.
Application layer: utilizes routing layer services to satisfy multicast application requirements. The
modules used:
Data packet transmit/receive controller.
Multicast session initiator/terminator.
IV. Multicast Routing Protocols
4.1 Issues and challenges for Multicast protocol Design in Ad hoc Networks:
Scarce bandwidth of ad hoc networks, rapidly moving nodes with limited resources (battery power,
memory usage), hidden terminal problem and security concerns remains a great challenge for multicast
protocols design. In addition to these challenges there are several issues to be considered but not limited to
robustness (link stability), efficiency (ratio of total number of data packets received by receivers to the total
number of packets (data and control) transmitted in the network, control overhead (control packets exchanged),
Quality of service (throughput, delay, delay jitter, and reliability), dependency on unicast routing protocol,
Resource management (battery power, memory).
4.2 Classification of Multicast Routing protocol (MRP):
Based on its function: MRP is broadly classified into two categories as Application Specific and
Application generic protocols.
MRP on different layers of protocol stack: MAC layer provides reliable end – to –end communication.
Network layer concentrates on routing and the Application layer provides easy deployment of protocol and
creates a virtual topology which hides routing complications.
Application generic protocols can be further classified on different dimensions:
Based on structure constructed: Ad hoc multicast routing protocols uses two topology approaches which
are classified as tree based and mesh based. Tree based multicast protocols are further divided into source
tree based and shared tree based. In source tree based the source node forms the root of the tree whereas in
the shard tree based multiple sources share a single tree with a core node at its root. The source tree based
multicast protocols handles distribution of loads efficiently and the shared tree based multicast protocols
offers scalability but the single point of failure affects the performance of multicast protocols due to is
dependency on the core node. Mesh based multicast protocols are robust as there exists multiple paths
between the source and destinations.
Based on initialization of multicast session: The formation of multicast group can be initiated either by
the source node or by the destination (receiver) node depending on which the multicast protocols can be
called as source initiated multicast protocol or receiver initiated multicast protocol respectively.
Based on maintenance mechanism: Multicast topology formed is maintained either by soft state
approach (Proactive) or hard state approach (Reactive). In soft state approach the link between the nodes
(source, receiver, and forwarding) is maintained by sending refreshing control packets periodically thus
resulting in high packet delivery ratio with more control overheads. In hard state approach control packets
are flooded only when link failure is detected thus minimizes the cost of overhead which leads to low
packet delivery ratio.
4.3 Tree based Multicast routing protocols:
4.3.1 Multicast Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing Protocol (MAODV)
Protocol Depiction: It is a shared tree based, receiver initiated multicast routing protocol. Uses hard state
approach for maintaining the tree constructed. The MAODV protocol is an extension of AODV .It determines a
multicast route on demand by using a broadcast route discovery mechanism. The first member of a multicast
group becomes the leader of that group and is responsible for maintaining the multicast group sequence number
and broadcasting this number to the multicast group. This is done through a group hellos (GRPHs) message.
Node that wishes to join the group and having the address of group leader send a route request (RREQ) to the
group leader otherwise broadcasts it. The member of the multicast group whose recorded sequence number
greater than that in the RREQ replies with a route reply (RREP) which contains the current sequence number of
multicast group distance of the replying node from the group leader. The receiver node joins the group by
choosing a shortest path from all RREP packets received and on sending a multicast activation (MACT)
message. The multicast tree is maintained using expanding ring search which uses RREQ, RREP, and MACT
cycle.
Advantages: integrates unicasting and multicasting as a combined framework, loop free protocol.
Disadvantages: shared tree approach degrades the performance when single point of failure occurs.
3. A survey on Network layer Multicast Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad hoc networks
www.iosrjournals.org 29 | Page
4.3.2 Ad Hoc Multicast Routing Protocol utilizing Increasing ID-Numbers (AMRIS)
Protocol Depiction: A shared tree based, source initiated, independent protocol and employs hard state
approach for tree maintenance. AMRIS dynamically assigns every node of multicast tree an ID number known
as msm-id. The node with the smallest msm-id, called the Sid forms the root of the multicast delivery tree root.
For multiple senders, the sender with smallest msm-id becomes the Sid. Sid initiates the multicast session by
broadcasting a NEW-SESSION message. The NEWSESSION message has the Sid’s msm-id and the routing
metrics. Neighbor nodes on receiving this message generate their own msm-id, which is larger than that
specified in the NEW-SESSION message. The nodes then rebroadcast the NEW-SESSION message with their
own msm-ids. A node wanting to join the multicast session sends a Join Request (JREQ) to the parent node with
smallest msm-id. The parent, a member of desired multicast group, sends a Join Acknowledgment (JACK).
Otherwise, the request is sent to the upstream node. When a link break occurs, the node with the larger msm-id
is responsible for reconstruction. A node rejoins the tree by executing Branch Reconstruction (BR), which has
two main subroutines, BR1 and BR2. BR1 is executed when the node has neighboring potential parent nodes
which it attempts to join, and BR2 is executed when the node does not have any neighboring potential parent
nodes where JREQ packet is flooded with some TTL value.
Advantages: simple, loop free, handles link breaks locally.
Disadvantages: use of beacon packets results in wastage of bandwidth, end-end delay in packet delivery and
loss of packets.
4.3.3 Bandwidth-Efficient Multicast Routing Protocol (BEMRP)
Protocol Depiction: Source tree based, receiver initiated, autonomous multicast routing protocols repairs the
link failure on demand (hard state). As the name indicates this protocol limits the use of bandwidth for
delivering the packets by finding the next nearest forwarding node rather than flooding control packets to find
the shortest path between source destination pair. The receiver node joins the group by flooding join control
packet. The tree nodes receiving the join packets selects one packet with a smallest hop count and sends reply
packet along the same path the selected join packet traversed. Link failures may be recovered by broadcast-
multicast scheme (upstream links to its downstream along a new route) or local rejoin scheme (downstream
node rejoins to upstream node).This protocol also determines optimized route by pruning unwanted forwarding
nodes by sending a quit message.
Advantages: low bandwidth usage, easy to implement as it does not determine shortest paths.
Disadvantages: increase in distance between source and receiver increases probability of path breaks and hence
results in low packet delivery ratio. Hard state approach delays packet delivery.
4.3.4 Associatively- Based Ad hoc Multicast Routing (ABAM)
Protocol Depiction: An on-demand source tree based, source initiated multicast routing protocol. The path of
the tree from the source to the receiver is constructed based on stability and hence needs less reconfiguration.
For tree construction the source floods multicast broadcast query packet (MBQ), the receiver replies with MBQ-
reply packet along the stable path and the source sets up the tree by sending MC-setup packets to all the
receivers who wish to join the multicast group. Intermediate nodes on receiving MBQ message appends their
ID, associativity ticks (reflects the link stability by counting the beacon control packets received continuously
from neighboring nodes) and other information (route relaying load, signal strength, power life) before
rebroadcasting. Hard state approach is employed to maintain the multicast tree constructed and handles both leaf
link break and branch link breaks effectively.
Advantages: achieves higher packet delivery ratio, low control overhead.
Disadvantages: increased hop distance between the source and the receiver makes the protocol less efficient
and it is not scalable.
4.3.5 Differential Destination Multicast Routing Protocol (DDM)
Protocol Depiction: A stateless, source tree based, receiver initiated multicast routing protocol which depends
on underlying unicast protocol and maintains the session using soft state approach. This protocol is more
applicable for small group size. The source nodes inserts the destination address into the field, called the DDM
block of the data packet, and unicasts it to the next node, using the underlying unicast routing protocol. A node
receiving the DDM block data packet acquires the address of the next hop node and unicasts it. In this way, the
data packets reach its destinations and thus the protocol avoids maintaining multicast states at the nodes. For
maintaining the tree soft-state approach is employed where each node along the forwarding path remembers the
destination address by storing it in the forwarding set. Thus caching this information, avoids listing all the
destination addresses in every packet and hence the protocol is called the Differential Destination Multicast
Routing protocol.
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Advantages: uses minimum memory resource as state information is not maintained, ensures security as the
source node manages the group members.
Disadvantages: periodic control packet transmission results in significant consumption of bandwidth when there
is an increase in no. of receivers, not scalable to large group size.
4.3.6 Weight –Based Multicast Protocol (WBM)
Protocol Depiction: Source tree based, receiver initiated, autonomous, multicast protocol which uses weight
concept for a new multicast member to join the multicast tree. This weight concept allows the new multicast
receiver to join the nearest node or the node nearest to the multicast source in the multicast tree. The receiver
initiates the session by broadcasting JoinReq packet with time-to-live (TTL) entry. On receiving the request a
tree node sends a Reply packet. The Reply packets arriving at a receiver node have the hop distance of receiver
node from tree node that sent the Reply packet and hop distance of the tree node from source. Best pat is
determined by means of parameter called joinWeight on considering the number of added forwarding nodes and
also the hop distance between the source and destination. After receiving a number of Reply packets, the node
maintains a best Reply, which is updated when new reply packets arrives. The best Reply minimizes the
quantity, Q = (1- joinWeight) ∗ (hop distance of receiver from tree node − 1) + joinWeight ∗ (hop distance of
receiver node from tree node + hop distance of tree node from Source node). A timer is set upon the receipt of
first Reply packet. Once the timer expires, receiver node sends a JoinConf message along the path that the
selected Reply has arrived. WBM uses localized prediction technique a soft state approach to maintain he
multicast tree.
Advantages: Weight concept improves the efficiency of the protocol. Prediction based route mechanism
prevents link breaks and increases packet delivery ratio.
Disadvantages: Prediction technique may not work well, in high fading environment. The joinWeight parameter
depends on network load conditions and multicast group size.
4.3.7 Multicast Routing Protocol Based on Zone Routing (MZRP)
Protocol Depiction: Source tree based, Source initiated multicast protocol combines both proactive (Table
driven approach, where each node maintains the topology of its zone) and on-demand approaches. Tree
construction is initiated by the source node and each node is associated with a routing zone. The multicast tree
nodes within the zone are maintained using proactive approach and tree construction is extended to other zones
when necessary (on-demand). The source node refreshes the tree by sending Tree-refresh packets and any node
not receiving it for some period of time is removed from the tree. When a link break is detected the isolated
node within the zone joins the tree by unicasting Join packets to all nodes in the zone. If the node moves away
from the zone joins the tree by sending JoinPropagate packet to the border nodes.
Advantages: Combines unicast (ZRP) and multicast routing protocol (MZRP), tunes through adapting zone
sizes which are determined based on network load conditions.
Disadvantages: Considerable amount of time is taken by the receiver to join the session when the distance
between the source and the receiver is large.
4.3.8 Multicast Core-Extraction Distributed Ad Hoc Routing (MCEDAR)
Protocol Depiction: MCEDAR a Source tree based multicast protocol combines the tree-based protocol and the
Mesh-based protocol to provide efficiency and maintains the structure using hard state approach. It relies on
CEDAR to construct the mesh called the mgraph as multicast routing infrastructure. CEDAR uses a core
computation algorithm to create a minimum dominating set (MDS) of core nodes. Each core node announces its
existence through a beacon control packet up to next three hops, and, thus each builds a virtual link identifying
its near core nodes. Each non-core node located one hop away from at least one core node selects one of them as
its dominator node. Either source or receiver can initiate the tree construction. When a non-core node wants a
receiver to become a member of a multicast group, it requests its dominating core node, to perform the join
operation. Core node broadcasts a JoinReq which contains address of the group (MA) the node wishes to join
and the current joinID of the node corresponding to the multicast group. When a node that is not a member of
multicast group (MA) receives the JoinReq, it forwards the message to its nearby core nodes. When an existing
member of the multicast group receives the JoinReq, it sends a Join-Ack (MA, joinID of the replying node) only
if its joinID is smaller than the joinID that arrives in the request. If its joinID is larger than the incoming one, it
forwards the request just like a nonmember. An intermediate node receiving the Join-Ack message, decides
whether to accept or reject it based on the robustness factor (R). Each mgraph has a parent set and a child set.
Node accepting a Join-Ack, adds the upstream mgraph members to its parent set and the downstream members
that are not already in its child set, forwards the Join-Ack to them adds them to its child set. When an
intermediate node decides to reject a Join-Ack packet, it suppresses the Join-Ack packet and explicitly leaves
from the upstream node so that its ID is removed from the upstream node’s child set. The dominator accepts
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Join- Ack packets based the robustness factor (R). If R = 2, only two Join-Ack packets are accepted by the
dominator node rejecting other packets. The member on accepting a Join-Ack sets its joinID to the max (current
joinID, arriving joinID) +1. It then stamps the joinID of the Join-Ack with its new joinID.
Advantages: Robust and efficient, as a receiver node has multiple paths to a multicast tree.
Disadvantages: Due to bandwidth constraints, mobility of nodes and high channel access cost this protocol
becomes less efficient and more expensive when used with small and sparsely distributed group environment.
Increases control overhead, when nodes need to change their cores frequently in a high mobility environment.
MCEDAR is also more complex (Tree-based and Mesh-based).
4.3.9 Preferred Link-Based Multicast Protocol (PLBM)
Protocol Depiction: PLBM a source tree based receiver initiated protocol employs hard state approach for tree
maintenance. Here each node maintains two tables NNT (Neighbors Neighbors Table) maintains two–hop (on
both streams) local network topology information and CT (Connect Table) for multicast tree information. Every
node updates its NNT entry on receiving beacon packets that are transmitted periodically by every node. When a
new member wants to join the group sends JoinConfirm message to the tree nodes in its NNT. Otherwise sends
JoinQuery packet to one of the eligible nodes which are determined using Preferred Link-Based Algorithm
(PLBA). Only the preferred nodes (first K eligible nodes in NNT) can process the received JoinQuery packet
and forwards to eligible nodes starting the timer to receive JoinConfirm message from the receiver who wish to
join the group. Each intermediate node updates its CT (path information both on upstream and downstream) on
receiving JoinConfirm packet and marks itself as connected.
Advantages: The concept of the preferred link provides better adaptability and flexibility. Further, the use of 2-
hop local topology information provides efficient multicast routing.
The preferred list not only relies on neighboring nodes but also on other characteristics such as link delay,
bandwidth, and link stability, network load.
Disadvantages: Transmission of beacon packets periodically considerably increases control overhead leading to
wastage of bandwidth.
4.3.10 Preferred Link-Based Unified Routing Protocol (PLBU)
Protocol Depiction: An extension work of PLBM routes both unicast and multicast routing traffic
simultaneously. PLBU has connect and reconfiguration phase. During connect phase the multicast tree is
constructed and link breaks are reconfigured in reconfiguration phase. Source initiates connect phase for unicast
routing whereas receiver initiates for multicast routing. It handles both unicast and multicast traffic in the same
manner but for multicasting the multicast connectivity is confirmed to one of the tree nodes as there may be
many RouteReply packets received from many tree nodes. PLBU makes use of route cache which reduces
control overhead. The key information maintained by PLBU at the intermediate nodes is the two-hop
information toward both streams which aids in quick reconfiguration of broken paths.
Discussion: Unifies unicast routing and multicast routing which reduces complexity and memory requirements
in resource constrained ad hoc environment. Multicast session paths can be used for unicast session thus
reducing control overhead in the network and hence PLBU is suitable for practical networks.
4.3.11 Multicast for Ad Hoc Networks with Swarm Intelligence (MANSI)
Protocol Depiction: MANSI utilizes swarm intelligence technique for multicast routing problem. Swarm
intelligence deals with complex behaviors arising from very simple individual behaviors and interactions, often
observed in nature, especially among social insects such as ants and honey bees. Each individual (for example
an ant) has little intelligence and simply follows basic rules using local information obtained from their
environment, global optimization objectives emerge when ants work collectively as a group. Similarly, MANSI
utilizes small control packets that stores information at every visited nodes which is used later by other control
packets. MANSI implements a shared tree-based approach for multicast connectivity among the members
through a designated core node. Tree construction is initiated by the core node by announcing its being to others
by flooding CoreAnnounce packet. Then the member nodes on receiving this announcement packet establish
multicast tree by sending a Jreq back to the core via the reverse path. Intermediate nodes receiving a Jreq
addressed to them become forwarding nodes of the multicast group accepts and rebroadcasts non-duplicated
data packets. To maintain the links established and allow new members to join, the core floods CoreAnnounce
packets periodically, as long as there are data packets to be sent. As an effect, these forwarding nodes form a
mesh structure that connects the group members, while the core serves as a central point for tree creation and
maintenance. MANSI tries to establish connectivity using minimum number of nodes and thus, nodes tend to
choose paths that are partially shared by others to reduce the number of the forwarding nodes. Periodic
exploration messages deployed by members to search for new forwarding nodes are replied by active
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forwarding members. If the cost of the new path is lower for the intermediate and requesting nodes, the
requester switches to the new route leaving the old one.
Discussion: The concept of swarm intelligence reduces the number of nodes required to establish multicast
routing tree. However, the path between the multicast member and forwarding set to the designated core need
not be the shortest. MANSI employs a mesh-based approach to increase redundancy by allowing packets to be
forwarded over more than one path, thereby increasing packet delivery ratio. In MANSI, group connectivity is
made more efficient by allowing members to share common paths to the core with other members to reduce the
total cost of forwarding data packets. Thus MANSI can be applied to many variations of multicast routing
problems for ad hoc networks, such as load balancing, secure routing, and energy conservation.
4.3.12 Adaptive Shared-Tree Multicast Routing Protocol (ASTM)
Protocol Depiction: This protocol combines the features of source-tree-based and shared-tree-based. The
shared-based tree rooted at Rendezvous Point (RP) is constructed initially by receivers by periodically sending
JoinReq packets to the RP. The JoinReq includes forward list, which is initially set to include all senders.
Sources send multicast data packets to the RP, and the RP forwards it to the receivers. The source sends the
multicast data packet to RP which then forwards to desired receivers if the protocol is operating in the unicast
shared mode. In multicast shared mode intermediate forwarding forwards the multicast data packets if it directly
receives from the source nodes, if the packets are received from RP intermediate nodes discards it to avoid
duplication of data packets. ASTM also allows sources to send multicast data packets directly to a receiver
member without directing to RP when the distance (hop counts) between the source and receiver is small
compared to the distance of RP and hence the name adaptive multicast (adaptive per source multicast routing).
Thus ASTM supports switching between the shared tree and the per source tree depending on the distance
between the source and the receiver.
Advantages: Adaptive nature of tree configuration makes it scalable (shared tree based) and increases packet
delivery ratio (source tree based). Reduced control overhead (shared tree based)
And better throughput (shortest path between sender and receiver).
Disadvantages: Failure of RP affects multicast session resulting in packet losses.
4.4 Mesh Based Multicast Routing Protocols:
4.4.1 On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP)
Protocol Depiction: A source-initiates the formation of mesh for multicast session. The mesh contains set of
nodes called forwarding nodes to forward data packets. The source floods JoinReq packet periodically to form
the mesh and the receivers joins the multicast session by sending JoinReply control packets via reverse shortest
path. Multicast mesh is maintained by sending JoinReq control packets periodically. Nodes which want to leave
the group just stops responding to JoinReq packet.
Advantages: Soft approach maintenance exhibits robustness.
Disadvantages: Increases control overhead, duplication of packets along multiple paths reduces efficiency and
ODMRP suffers from scalability problem.
4.4.2 Dynamic Core-Based Multicast Routing Protocol (DCMP)
Protocol Depiction: Source initiated mesh based protocol and has three sources namely active source, passive
source and core active sources. Each passive source has core active sources associated with it and acts as a
proxy for the passive source by forwarding data for it over the mesh constructed by flooding JoinReq packets.
Core active sources are the ones that floods JoinReq control packets on behalf of some passive sources. Active
and core active sources initiates mesh creation and sends the data packets over the mesh whereas the passive
nodes simply forwards it to its proxy nodes. Passive sources are determined by Maxhop distance (say 2)
between them and core active nodes and the number of passive sources is limited by MaxPassSize to ensure
robustness. Mesh maintenance is done by soft state approach.
Advantages: Scalable, high packet delivery ratio, decreased control overhead thus overcomes the limitations of
ODMRP.
Disadvantages: The values associated to the parameters MaxHop and MaxPassSize depends on network traffic,
group size and number of sources. Performance is degraded due to single point of failure.
4.4.3 Forwarding Group Multicast Protocol (FGMP)
Protocol Depiction: A receiver advertising mesh based multicast routing protocol employs forwarding group
concept. It differs from ODMRP in mesh creation initiation. Receivers create the mesh by flooding JoinReq
packets. On receiving these packets, each source updates it member table which contains IDs of all receivers and
creates forwarding table. The forwarding table created is forwarded to the receivers. The path between source
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and receiver is established when the forwarding table reaches the receiver. FGMP applies soft state approach by
flooding JoinReq packets on regular intervals to maintain the mesh.
Advantages: Robust and useful routing protocol when the numbers of senders are greater than the receivers.
Disadvantages: Increase in control overhead due to soft state approach.
4.4.4 Neighbor Supporting Ad Hoc Multicast Routing Protocol (NSMP)
Protocol Depiction: Mesh based source initiated multicast routing protocol employs selective and localized
forwarding of packets. Source node creates the mesh by flooding Flood-Req control packets over the network.
Receiver node receiving the control packets replies with Rep packet and establishes the route. Mesh is
maintained by each source node which transmits Local-Req packets periodically that are forwarded by mesh
nodes. The receiver nodes that are not within the range of multicast mesh may join the mesh by flooding Mem-
Req (Member Request). Any multicast node may reply to the request with route discovery packet. When
multiple route discovery packets arrives at receiver node, NSMP uses relative weight metric given as ((1-
α)*Count of forwarding nodes from source to current node +α* count of non-forwarding nodes from source to
current node) to select a route for the new receiver node. The path with the lowest value is chosen for relative
weight metric and α value depends on network load conditions. For mesh partitions group leaders among t
sources is selected and is responsible for flooding Flood-Req for every Flood-Period interval.
Advantages: Reduced control overhead, high packet delivery ratio, use of relative weight metric for a node to
join the multicast session improves efficiency of the protocol.
Disadvantages: Relative weight metric value changes as the load in the network varies and hence it must be
made adaptive.
4.4.5 Core-Assisted Mesh Protocol (CAMP)
Protocol Depiction: Mesh based receiver initiated multicast routing protocol uses core node in the mesh for
efficient bandwidth utilization. CAMP uses CAM (Core-to-group address) table which contains core ID. A
receiver joins the shared mesh by getting core ID form CAM table and unicasts JoinReq packet to core node.
The packets are forwarded using underlying unicast routing protocol. A mesh node sends back Ack packet to the
receiver and hence it becomes the part of multicast group. CAMP establishes shortest paths by sending
HeartBeat or PushJoin to the nodes. CAMP also supports sender only node to join simplex mode where data
flows along only one direction. Mesh is maintained by employing hard state approach.
Advantages: Reduced control overhead exhibiting high packet delivery ratio.
Disadvantages: Failure of core nodes results in significant packet loss.
4.4.6 Source Routing-Based Multicast Protocol (SRMP)
Protocol Depiction: SRMP is an on-demand source initiated mesh based multicast routing protocol. SRMP uses
Forwarding group (FG) concept to establish a mesh for each multicast session. SRMP employs source routing
mechanism defined in the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol and avoids channel overhead and improves
scalability. It deals with two important issues in solving the multicast routing: path availability concept and
Long battery life path. When a source node wishes to join the group, broadcasts a Jreq packet to its neighbors,
invokes a route discovery procedure for multicast group. The Jreq packet transmitted has the ID of source node,
multicast group ID, and a Sequence number field which is set by the source node for each Jreq packet. Sequence
number field is used to detect packet duplication. A first multicast receiver receiving Jreq packet, stores the
multicast routing information, and checks its Neighbor Stability Table for stability information (association
stability, link signal strength, and link availability) among its neighbors. Battery life is also verified taking into
account the power required in transmitting to each neighbor. A neighbor is selected as an FG node if the four
selection metrics satisfy their predefined thresholds. The receiver then sends a Jrep packet to each FG node,
setting its type as “member node” in the Neighbor Stability Table. If no neighbor nodes satisfying the
predefined thresholds are available, the node with the best metrics among all the neighbor nodes will be selected
as an FG node. Thus the route is constructed and a multicast source node sends multicast data toward the
multicast group nodes. Any node wishing to leave the multicast session just sends Leave-Group message to its
neighbor nodes.
Advantages: SRMP establishes stable multicast path links maximizing the lifetime of multicast session routes,
ensures reliability and robustness, and results in less power consumption. On-demand route discovery
mechanism and link break detection minimizes control overhead saving bandwidth and network resources.
Disadvantages: The value of the four metrics used in selecting the paths are not globally constant and varies
with different network load conditions. Hence the four metrics must be made adaptive to dynamic network
traffic.
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V. Summary and Conclusion
Table-1 summarizes the characteristics of multicast routing protocols discussed for quick reference.
Thus this paper presents a comprehensive survey of considerable number of network layer multicast routing
protocols and provides a broader understanding. It also provides information about Multicast Architecture
Reference model. Various issues and challenges that are to be considered in designing multicast routing
protocols for Ad Hoc networks aids in research direction.
VI. Future Work
The challenges faced by multicast routing protocols for ad hoc wireless networks are more complex
than faced for wired networks. Some of the parameters that affect multicast routing in ad hoc wireless networks
include Packet delivery ratio, total overhead, efficiency, average end-to-end latency, average throughput.
Reliable multicasting with scarce bandwidth and limited battery power resources still remains a greater
challenge for multicast routing protocols in high mobile ad hoc networks. Another greater concern for multicast
routing protocol in ad hoc wireless is security. Other issues include load balancing, resource management. The
research topics can b extended to but not limited to interoperability of protocols with other networks, interaction
among unicast, multicast and broadcast applications, Integration of quality of service, network coding for better
resource utilization and channel capacity. Designing a multicast routing protocol that takes all these issues into
consideration is highly complex. One better possible solution would be an adaptive approach to multicast
routing protocol.
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Table 1 - Comparison and Summary table for Multicast Routing Protocol
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