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DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

This document discusses disaster mitigation and preparedness. It defines what constitutes a disaster, noting that disasters overwhelm existing resources and cause casualties or damage. India is particularly vulnerable to both natural and man-made disasters due to its unique geography and climate. Disasters can be categorized as sudden onset like earthquakes or floods, slow onset like droughts or famines, or man-made like industrial accidents. Disasters progress through relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction, and mitigation phases for rapid onset events or early warning, emergency relief, and rehabilitation phases for slow onset events. Risk assessment is important for effective disaster management.

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Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa DISASTER PREPAREDNESS Lt Col. K.C.MONNAPPA MA Social Work (Delhi University) Dip Sustainable Development CEU Hungary
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 1 Disasters What Is A Disaster? The United Nations defines disasters as “…the occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of a society (or community). The Webster’s Dictionary, defines disaster as “ any event that overwhelms existing resources to deal with the event…” In essence it is a situation / event or series of events which gives rise to casualties and / or damage or loss of property, infrastructure, essential services or means of livelihood or a scale that is beyond the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with unaided. (Manual on Disaster Management in India). Disasters: The Indian Context India, a land characterized by unique geo - climatic conditions is particularly vulnerable to Natural disasters. Also of late, it has seen the rise of man - made disasters as well. Disasters occur with unfailing regularity and despite better preparedness to meet all such contingencies, the economic and social costs on account of losses caused by natural disasters continue to mount year after year. The list of hazard type is very long. Many occur infrequently or impact a very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur in areas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters. However from the perspective of the disaster victim it is not particularly useful to distinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now of limited interest to the International community. These include avalanches, fogs, frost, hail, lightening, snowstorms and tornadoes. The international interest is less for these hazards because their impacts affect relatively few people and the countries in which they normally occur have sufficient resources and systems in place to respond without external assistance. There are several hazards types for which there is widespread concern. They can be categorized as follows:-  Sudden onset hazards. (Geological and climatic hazards) such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides, etc.  Slow onset hazards. (Environment hazards) such as drought, famine, environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, pest infestation etc.  Industrial/Technological hazards. System failures, accidents, spillages, explosions, fires, etc.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Epidemics. Water and/or food borne diseases, communicable diseases, vector borne diseases, complications from wounds, etc. Disasters may be natural or caused by human actions, may occur in any season of the year and may cover a limited or a wide-ranging geographic area. The following are some examples of the wide range of events that may reach disaster proportions:  Earthquake  Flood  Act of terrorism (e.g., bombing)  Civil disturbance (e.g., riot)  Hazardous materials incident  Tropical cyclones  Drought  Landslides  Forest fires  Avalanches  Pest infestations It is pertinent to mention that whatever the cause, disasters have several key elements in common:  The event is relatively unexpected, with little or no prior warning or opportunity to prepare.  Available personnel and emergency services may not be available during the initial stages of a disaster because of demands for their services.  Lives, health and the environment are endangered. Disaster Threats in India India is plagued by a variety of Disasters at any given time. The potential threat of different types of disasters varies across the country. Floods could be ravaging the fertile plains of Assam in the East while Gujarat and Rajasthan could be reeling under the influence of drought. A cold wave could be gripping the Northern parts of the country while the Southern states could be enjoying a relatively warm and pleasant climate. Add to this, the calamitous cyclone that unleashes itself in the coastal areas of the country and the earthquakes that frequent the states located in the Himalayas. The Gujarat earthquake and the Orissa cyclones are a case in point, which highlights the calamity and impact of such an event on an unsuspecting population. Man made disasters such as ‘Acts of terrorism’ (Bombay Bomb blasts), Civil disturbance (Gujarat riots), Hazardous Materials Accidents (Bhopal Gas Tragedy) have contributed its share in making India a land of ‘Myriad Hazards’ – both manmade and natural.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Phases Of Disaster Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a time continuum. There are basically two types of disasters – Rapid onset disasters and Slow onset disasters. Identifying and understanding phases in these disasters helps to describe disaster related needs and to conceptualize appropriate Disaster Management activities. Rapid Onset Disasters The phases discussed below correspond to the time sequence following the occurrence of a Rapid Onset disaster. The phases are:-  The Relief phase. It is the period immediately following the occurrence of a sudden disaster (or the late discovery of a neglected/deteriorated slow-onset situation) when exceptional measures have to be taken to search and find the survivors as well as their basic needs for shelter, water, food and medical care.  Rehabilitation phase. This phase involves the operations and decisions taken after disaster with a view to restore a stricken community to its former living conditions, while encouraging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes caused by disasters.  Reconstruction phase. This involves the action taken to re-establish a community after a period of rehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. Actions would include construction of permanent housing, full restoration of all services and complete resumption of the pre-disaster state.  Mitigation phase. It is the collective term used to encompass all actions taken prior to the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster measures) including preparedness and long-term risk reduction measures.  Preparedness phase. It consists of activities designed to minimize loss and damage, organize the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation. Slow Onset Disasters The sequence of a disaster continuum for slow onset disasters is similar in framework to that as in Rapid Onset disasters but has important distinctions. The terms and definitions discussed below amplify those additions and modifications:-  Early warning phase. It is the process of monitoring the situations in communities and areas known to be vulnerable to slow onset disasters. For example, famine early warning may be reflected in such indicators as drought, livestock sales or changes in economic conditions. The purpose of early warning
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa is to enable remedial measures to be initiated and to provide more timely and effective relief including through disaster preparedness actions.  Emergency relief phase. It is the period during which extraordinary measures have to be taken. Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied to support human needs, sustain livelihoods and protect property to avoid the onset of disasters. This phase can encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster relief and recovery periods. An emergency phase may be quite extensive, as in slow onset disaster such as famine. It can also be relatively short lived, as after an earthquake.  Rehabilitation phase. It is the phase where action is taken after a slow onset disaster where attention is given to the issues of resettlement or returnee programmes, particularly to people who have been displaced for reasons arising out of conflict or economic collapse. Risk Assessment and Disaster Management Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society. The first priority is to establish the needs for immediate emergency measures to save and sustain the lives of survivors. The second priority is to identify the possibilities for facilitating and expediting recovery and development. Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in phases and involving on the spot surveys and the collation, evaluation and interpretation of information from various sources. The surveys concern both direct and indirect losses as well as the short/long term effects. Assessment involves determining not only what has happened and what assistance might be needed, but also defines objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be provided to the victims. Some assessments are specifically conducted as damage assessments. They include the preparation of specific, quantified estimates of physical damage resulting from a disaster. The damage assessment may also include recommendations concerning the repair, reconstruction or replacement of structures, and equipment, as well as the restoration of economic activities. Objectives of Assessment The first step of a post – disaster assessment is to determine when an emergency exists. Next, it is pertinent to define the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate threats to health and safety and to pre-empt future serious problems. A frequent problem of assessment is to assume that all property losses or survival needs must be replaced or furnished from outside sources only. Instead the assessment must also identify the local response capacity, including organizational, medical and logistical resources. The assessment must help decide how best to use existing resources for relief. It must also identify the priorities of the affected people themselves. Another problem is that people making the assessment who are not from the disaster area may have a difficult time distinguishing chronic needs from problems created by the disaster. Knowledge of base line data is essential to identify the “ starting point” for post – disaster needs.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa If the results of the assessment are to contribute to the design of a disaster response program, then the response agency must know the policies of the government with regard to emergency assistance. These policies will affect the estimate for the additional support required from national and international sources for relief. Evolving Objectives of Assessment Warning phase  Determine extent to which affected populations are taking measures to protect lives and facilities from expected hazard impact  Activate arrangements in the preparedness plan regarding the implementation of assessment. Emergency phase  Confirm the reported emergency and estimate the overall magnitude of the damage  Identify, characterize and quantify “populations at risk” in the disaster.  Help to define and prioritize the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate risks.  Identify local response capacity, including organizational, medical and logistic resources  Help anticipate future serious problems  Help manage and control the immediate response Rehabilitation phase  Identify the priorities of the affected people  Identify the policies of the government with regard to post – disaster assistance  Estimate the additional support required from national and international sources for relief and recovery  Monitor the outcome and effectiveness of continuing relief and rehabilitation measures Recovery phase  Determine the damage to economically significant resources and its implications for development policy  Assess the impact of the disaster on current development programs  Identify new development opportunities created by the disaster
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa The Assessment Process Assessment must be carefully planned and managed. A sequence of activities is involved and each must be planned in detail. The following activities typically constitute the assessment process:  Identify information needs and sources of reliable data  Collect data  Analyze and interpret data  Report conclusions, forecasts and alternatives to appropriate planner and decision makers As the response actions begin to influence events, assessments become part of the monitoring and control loop, allowing those involved in monitoring outcomes and attempting to correct the response. It becomes part of a continuing process of assessment, review, and correction by which those managing the operation begin to restore the framework for survival and recovery. Assessment for Different Disaster Types The design and execution of assessments are very different for sudden onset disasters versus the slow onset. For sudden onset, there are typically many different needs in many locations involving casualty management, support for local rescue efforts and recovery of lifeline services during the first two days of an emergency. Initially the needs change from hour to hour often resulting in confusion. In fact, some activities need to be done so quickly that action has to precede detailed assessments, using strategies determined during preparedness planning on the basis of emergencies. For displaced persons and famine emergencies the lead times are sometimes long and donors may be unwilling to commit large amounts of assistance in response to ambiguous information. The initial priority needs, which should be assessed, include immunizations, emergency water supply, nutritional monitoring, bulk food logistics and registration systems. Early geographical assessments of the size of the populations at risk are vital. These prolonged emergencies may last for months, and often for years. This allows for detailed analysis of the assessment system’s performance and the opportunity to adapt them as requirements change. Assessment Data and its Use Assessment provides support for emergency decision makers. Assessment is conducted for a specific user or group of users who are making decisions about emergency resource allocation and response strategies in what may be a fast changing environment. There are three aspects involved in the assessment process: picture building; situation assessment and response planning. Usually we start by building up a picture of where people are, what condition they are in, what services are still available, and what resources have survived. The situation assessment involves the identification of operational priorities. The situation itself is usually fast changing and disorganized, this leads to the need to be able to
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa forecast how the situation is likely to develop. The assessment data needs to be structured to help with the following:  Recognition and assessment of situations requiring decisions  Formation of the operational strategies  Objectives and needs  Potential alternatives generated  Analysis of the alternatives: evaluate their impact  Interpretation and selection: compared by evaluating impacts The last process of decision-making is the response planning. This includes the detailed assignment and scheduling of resources (people, equipment, and supplies) to meet specific relief objectives. To view things in the right perspective, in order to be able to formulate a workable response and preparedness solution, it is essential to have an OVERVIEW of the types of disasters that strikes the country frequently. Some of the most commonly occurring disasters are as follows:-  Earthquakes  Floods  Hazardous Materials Accidents  Tropical Cyclones  Drought  Civil Disturbance  Terrorist Attacks As is evident, assessment whether pre, during or post disaster, is a time consuming and an arduous task requiring a vast investment in terms of time, money and manpower (not necessarily in that order). The field of disaster management and mitigation is yet to receive the importance it deserves in India. The matter further gets complicated, as the people involved in the process of assessment and preparedness plans do not necessarily happen to belong to the same place. It is imperative to involve the local community during the assessment phase before measures and plans to counter disasters are formulated. Later in the book we shall see how a community can organise itself to be prepared to deal with some of the frequently occurring disasters that the community may be vulnerable to, by utlising local resources and manpower.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 2 Overview of frequently Occurring Disasters Earthquakes Earthquakes are a shaking or trembling of the earth, caused by underground volcanic forces or by breaking and shifting of rock beneath the surface. It may seem something of a revelation that the plates of the earth’s crust are in slow but constant motion and innumerable earthquakes are registered around the world on seismographs everyday. These tremors are generally very small in intensity to cause any harm / damage. However when the magnitude is more than 6.0 on the Richter scale, it is both noticeable and devastating wherein they assume apocalyptic proportions hitting densely populated areas on account of the suddenness of their shock and their mass destructive potential. Earthquake Hazards in India Earthquakes continue to be one of nature’s most devastating furies known to mankind since time immemorial. India has a very long history of earthquake occurrences. About 50 per cent of the total area is vulnerable to seismic damage of buildings in varying degrees. The most vulnerable areas according to the present seismic zone map of India are in Himalayan and Sub Himalayan regions, Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Depending on varying degrees of seismicity, the entire country can be divided into the following seismic regions:  Kashmir and Western Himalayas - This region covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and sub- mountainous regions of Punjab.  Central Himalayas – This region includes the mountain and sub- mountain regions of UP and the sub-mountainous parts of Punjab.  North- East India – This region comprises the whole of Indian Territory to the East of North Bengal.  Indo-Gangetic Basin and Rajasthan- This region comprises of Rajasthan, plains of Punjab, Haryana, UP and Bengal.  Cambay and Rann of Kutch.  Peninsular India including the islands of Lakshadweep.  The Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Causal Phenomenon Slippage of crystal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to new alignment.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Impact The impact of earthquakes can be best explained with a help of a flow chart:- Figure 2.1. Direct and Chain Effects of Earthquake EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS On Ground  Fissures  Settlement  Land Slides  Liquefaction  Earth Pressures On Man Made Structures  Cracking  Sliding  Over Turning  Collapse On Water  Waves  Hydrodynamic pressure  Isunamics (Sea Waves) POSSIBLE CHAIN EFFECTS LAND SLIDES DAM FAILURE ISUNAMIC ATOMIC POWER PLANT FAILURE FIRE Destruction of settlements Temp. Dam across river and its failure Flood Flow Destruction of Structures Flooding of Land Water Contamination Devastation by high waves Radiation Hazard Fire
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Principally, the location of settlements in seismic areas. Other contributory factors include:-  Structures which are not resistant to ground motion.  Dense collection of building with high occupancy.  Lack of access to information about earthquake risks. Earthquake Classifications Earthquakes are classified as small, moderate, major, or great based on the Richter scale (a measure of energy released during the quake). The Richter scale has a logarithmic base, so each increment on the scale is multiplied by a factor that is 10 times larger than the previous factor. (For example, an earthquake of magnitude 8.6 would not be twice as violent as one of 4.3, but rather would be 10,000 times worse.) Although there are other methods of determining earthquake intensity and magnitude, the Richter scale is the most widely used method today. Earthquake classifications based on Richter scale magnitudes are shown in the table below. Classifications Richter Scale Magnitudes Small 5.0-5.9 Moderate 6.0-6.9 Major 7.0-7.9 Great 8.0-8.9 Table 2.2. Earthquake Classifications Typical Adverse Affects The typical adverse affects due to earthquake are:-  Physical damage. Damage or loss of structure and infrastructure. Fires, dam failures, landslides, flooding etc may occur.  Casualties. Often high, particularly near epicenter or in highly populated areas or where buildings are not built to resist earthquake.  Public health. Fracture injuries are the most widespread problem. Secondary threats due to flooding, contaminated water supply or break down in sanitary conditions are common causes for concern.  Water supply. Severe problems are most likely due to damage of water system, pollution of open wells and changes in water table.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Possible Risk Reduction Measures The adverse affects can to a large extent be mitigated through a series of strategic thinking and planning, such as :-  Hazard mapping  Public awareness programmes and training  Assessing and reducing structural vulnerability.  Land use controlling or zoning, building codes. Specific Preparedness Measures Specific preparedness measures to reduce the overall impact due to earthquake can be achieved through earthquake warning and preparedness programmes. Typical Post Disaster Needs The typical post disaster needs of the afflicted population and place would generally encompass the following:-  Search and Rescue efforts  Emergency medical assistance  Damage needs and assessment surveys  Relief assistance  Repair and reconstruction  Economic recovery Earthquake Prediction The probability of occurrence can be determined but not the exact timing. Forecasting is based on monitoring of seismic activity, historical incidence and observations. Although it is still impossible to predict earthquakes accurately, scientists have been able to derive some probabilities about future earthquakes in India. Some of the most vulnerable areas are depicted in the map shown in Map 2.3.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Map 2.3. Earthquake Hazard Zones Of India
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Floods A flood occurs any time a body of water rises to cover what is usually dry land. Floods have many causes, including heavy rain, spring snowmelt, hurricanes and coastal storms and dam or levee failure. When flooding occurs, affected areas may sustain damage to structures and personal property, as well as severe damage to the environment in the form of soil erosion and deforestation and damage to utilities and transportation systems. Flash floods, for which there is little or no warning, cause great risk to humans and animals. Land along rivers and streams, lakeshores and coastlines are particularly susceptible to flooding. Under some conditions, however, even inland that are not normally threatened by flooding, may also be immersed. Floods :Indian Context The country receives an annual precipitation of 400 million – hectare meters. Of the annual rainfall, 75% is received during four months of monsoon (June – September) and as a result, almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this period. The flood hazard is compounded by the problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and synchronization of river floods with sea tides in the coastal plains. The area vulnerable to floods is 40 million - hectare and the average area affected by floods annually are about 8 million hectares. The average annual total damage to crops, houses and public utilities during the period 1953 –1995 was about Rs.9720 million. Causes of floods Flooding conditions may occur due to:  Rivers in spate  Snowmelt  Storm surges  Short intense storms causing flash floods Flooding in rivers is mainly caused by :  Inadequate capacity within the banks of the river to contain high flows  River bank erosion and silting of riverbeds  Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course  Synchronization of flood in the main and tributary rivers  Flow retardation due to tidal and backwater effects  Poor natural drainage  Cyclone and heavy rainfall
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Flood Prone Areas in India: Figure 2.4. Flood Disaster Management in India: The various measures adopted for flood mitigation may be categorized into two groups:  Structural  Non- structural The general approach is aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching the potential damage centres, as a result of which a large number of embankments have come up along the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of the flood protection program undertaken in the country so far in the form of structural measures may be grouped into the following:  Dams and Reservoirs  Embankments, flood walls, sea wall  Natural detention basin  Channel improvement  Diversion of floodwaters For effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is necessary that pre- and post- monsoon checks must be made and special repairs must be carried out prior to flood period. The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the susceptibility to flood damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non- structural measures being implemented in the country are:
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa 1. Modifying the susceptibility to flood damages through:  Flood plain management  Flood proofing including disaster preparedness and response planning  Flood forecasting and Warning 2. Modifying the flood loss burden through:  Disaster Relief  Flood fighting including Public Health Measures and Public education, (one of the aims this book) General Characteristics The general characteristics associated with floods are:-  Flash Floods. Accelerated runoff, dam failure, breakup of ice jam  River Floods. Slow buildup, usually seasonal in river systems  Coastal Floods. Associated with tropical cyclones, tsunami waves, storm surges. Factors affecting degree of danger usually are: depth of water, duration, velocity, rate of rise, frequency of occurrence and seasonality. Flood Classifications Floods are measured according to the heights the waters reach. Their magnitude is based on the chances that water flow will equal or exceed a certain level on a recurring basis. Flood Prediction Satellite technology combined with river forecast centers and hydrologic service enable meteorologists to predict flood occurrence and severity with reasonable accuracy and provide warnings to those in high-risk areas. On average, rivers overflow their normal boundaries once every 2 years. Severe coastal flooding, however, can result in conjunction with any hurricane or coastal storm, the track of which cannot be predicted with complete accuracy. Clearly, the risk of damage or injury resulting from floods cannot be downplayed. Setting up of flood forecasting and warning services is one of the most cost- effective non- structural measures available. The flood forecasting organization set up in Central Water Commission is presently responsible for issuing forecasts at 157 stations, of which 132 are for water stage forecast and 25 for inflow forecast used for optimum operation of certain major reservoirs. These 157 stations are located in the 11 flood prone states and 2 Union Territories.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Flood forecasting methods are being constantly reviewed and further improvements are being made with assistance from UNDP, USAID, Denmark, etc, so as to make flood forecast more reliable and timely. The Ministry of Water Resources is reviewing flood- forecasting methods also. Modernization involves installing automatic data collection system by means of sensors, transmission of data by latest techniques of communication and formulation of forecasts using computer based comprehensive models. The final forecasts are communicated to the concerned administrative and engineering authorities of the State and other agencies connected with flood protection and management work, on telephone or by special messenger / availability of communication facilities etc. Areas likely to be affected by floods are shown in map 2.5.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Map 2.5. Flood Hazard Map Of India
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Tropical Cyclones The World Meteorological Organisation defines the term ‘Tropical Cyclone’ as weather systems in which wind speeds exceed ‘gale force’ (min 34 knots or 63 kmph) tropical cyclones owe their genesis to the ocean and atmosphere, powered by the heat from the sea, driven by the easterly trades and the westerly temperates, the high planetary winds and their own fierce energy. As a result of this lethal cocktail, the ocean develops a devastating and mammoth surge, thereby inundating vast coastal areas. Tropical cyclones announce their arrival through devastatingly violent winds, torrential rainfall accompanied by storm surges leading to floods and thereby contributing to large-scale devastation and disruption to normal life. Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones The characteristics of Tropical cyclones are:-  Destructive winds  Storm surges  Exceptionally high rainfall occurrences Stages of Tropical Cyclones The various stages associated with Tropical Cyclones are;-  Formation and initial development stage  Mature stage  Modification or decaying stage Causal Phenomenon The causal phenomenon associated with floods are:-  Mixture of heat and moisture forms a low-pressure center over oceans in tropical latitudes where water temperatures are over 26 degrees c.  Wind currents spin and organise around deepening low pressure over accelerating toward the center and moving along track pushed by trade winds.  Depression becomes a tropical cyclone when winds reach gale force or 117km per hour  A warm sea temperature  High relative humidity  Atmospheric instability  A location of at least 4 – 5 Latitude degree from the equator
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Classification of Cyclonic Disturbances The classification of Cyclonic disturbances (low pressure areas) is made by the strength of the associated winds. The classification used in India is given in the following table: Ser No Disturbance Wind Speed (Knots) 1. Low >17 2. Depression 17 – 27 (32 – 50 Kmph) 3. Deep Depression 28 – 33 (51 – 62 Kmph) 4. Cyclonic Storm 34 – 47 (63 – 88 Kmph) 5. Severe Cyclonic storm with a core of Hurricane winds 48 – 63 (89 – 118 Kmph) Table 2.6.Classification of Cyclonic disturbances General Characteristics When the cyclone strikes land, high winds, exceptional rainfall and storm surges cause damage with secondary flooding and landslides. Predictability Tropical cyclones can be tracked from their development but accurate landfall forecasts are usually possible only a few hours before as unpredictable changes in course can occur. Factors Contributing to Vulnerability The factors contributing to the vulnerability of the settlements/community are:-  Settlements located in low lying coastal areas (direct impact)  Settlements in adjacent areas (heavy rains, floods)  Poor communications or warming systems  Lightweight structures, older construction, poor quality masonry  Infrastructural elements, fishing boats and maritime industries. Typical Adverse Effects The adverse affects associated with floods are:-
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Physical damagestructures lost and damaged by wind force, flooding, surge and landslides.  Casualties and public health May be caused by flying debris, or flooding  Contamination of water supplies May lead to viral outbreaks and malaria.  Water supplies Ground water may be contaminated by floodwaters.  Crops and food supplies High winds and rains can ruin standing crops, tree plantations and food stocks.  Communications and logistics Severe disruption is possible as wind brings down telephone lines, antennas and satellite disks. Transport may be curtailed. Possible Risk Reduction Measures The possible risk reduction measures are:-  Risk assessment and hazard mapping  Land use control and flood plain management  Reduction of structural vulnerability  Improvement of vegetation cover. Specific Preparedness Measures The specific preparedness measures could include the following:-  Public warning systems  Evacuation plans  Training and community participation Typical Post Disaster Needs The post disaster needs could include evacuation and emergency shelter; search and rescue; medical assistance; water purification; reestablish logistical and communication networks; disaster assessment; provision of seeds for planting. Impact Assessment Tools The common impact assessment tools used to assess damage due to floods are damage assessment forms and aerial surveys.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Cyclonic Prediction and Warning Centers  Satellite pictures  Weather/meteorological observatories at sea  Ships at sea ….. in INDIA  Area cyclone warning centre (ACWC’s) at Kolkatta, Chennai and Mumbai  Cyclone warning Centres (CWC’s) at Bhuvaneshwar, Visakapatnam and Ahmedabad. Areas likely to be affected during a Tropical Cyclone are depicted in map 2.7.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Map 2.7. Winds and Cyclone Hazard Map Of India
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Drought It is a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the normal or expected amount for a specific period. This condition occurs either due to inadequacy of rainfall, or lack of irrigation facilities, under – exploitation or deficient availability for meeting the normal crop requirement in the context of the agro – climatic conditions prevailing in any particular area. In other words, drought can also be defined as adverse moisture index (MI), or adverse water balance which may be attributable not only to prolonged dry spell due to lack of sufficient rainfall but also due to such other factors as excessive Evapo-transpiration losses, high temperature, low – soil holding capacity etc. Droughts in India The rainfall distribution pattern of India is generally uneven ranging from 10,000mm at Cherapunji in the Northeast to around 200-350mm in parts of western Rajasthan and Gujarat. However when computing the annual rainfall, it is observed that India receives a healthy 1200mm,which is very good for a country of this size. The rainfall distribution pattern of India is as under:-  33% Low Rainfall Region 750mm  35% Medium Rainfall Region 751-1125mm  24% High Rainfall Region 1125-2000mm  8% Very High Rainfall Region >2000mm Due to the erratic behaviour of the rainfall and its uneven distribution throughout the country, an average of 68% or roughly 2/3 of the country’s arable land area is susceptible to drought. Administration authorities in states such as Bihar constantly find themselves in paradoxical situations wherein a single district at times face both floods as well as drought in a single season, simultaneously. This is largely due to the absence of a well-developed network of irrigation system that could channelise the excess water that flows into the region and utilize it in areas under the ‘Rain Shadow’ region. Types of Droughts Droughts could be classified as under:  Agriculture drought, wherein the impact of drought on human activity is influenced by a host of factors, such as the degree of advancement in the agriculture technology and its availability e.g. an irrigation system, quality and retention capacity of the soil, timing of the seasonal rainfall and the adaptive capacity and behaviour of the farmer  Meteorological drought, caused due to reduction in rainfall  Hydrological drought, caused due to reduction in water resources
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Drought Prediction Careful analysis of rainfall and hydrological data analyzed with influencing factors go a long way in predicting droughts. With the advancement in modern satellite based technology such as the GIS (Geographical Information System), droughts can be predicted with greater accuracy and the region likely to be affected can be fore warned. A ‘weather watch group’ is constituted in the Ministry of Agriculture, which meets every week to take stock of the rainfall progress, its effects on the crops from sowing to harvesting, during Khariff season. Weekly inputs from the Indian Meteorological Department gives an early warning about the impending drought as and when symptoms arise in this regard and the states are warned accordingly. The National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Management System (NADAMS) is being developed by the Department of Space for the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation and is primarily based on the monitoring of vegetation status through National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Advanced Very High Resolution (AVHR) data. The drought assessment is based on comparative evaluation of satellite observed green vegetation cover (both area and greenness) of district in any specific time period. Causal Phenomena The causative factors for drought could be the following:  Immediate cause. Rainfall deficit  Possible underlying causes. o Anthropogenic Factors leading to changes in ground surface and soil o El Nino, a phenomenon wherein there is an incursion of warm surface waters into the normally colder waters esp. seen off the South American Coast, although this kind of phenomenon has been known to occur in India too o Higher temperatures on sea surfaces o Increase of Carbon dioxide gases in the atmosphere Possible Risk Reduction Measures The possible risk reduction measures are drought and famine early warning systems General Characteristics The general characteristics associated with droughts are:-
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  The reduction of water or moisture availability is temporary and significant in relation to the norm.  Meteorological drought is the reduction in rainfall and hydrological drought is the reduction in water resources.  Agricultural drought is the impact of drought on human activity influenced by various factors: the presence of irrigation systems, moisture retention capacity of the soil, the timing of the rainfall and adaptive behaviour of the farmers. Predictability Periods of unusual dryness are normal in all weather systems. Rainfall and hydrology data must be carefully analyzed with influencing factors in predicting drought, however, advance warning is usually possible. Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Factors contributing to vulnerability are: -  Location in an arid area where dry conditions are increased by drought  Farming on marginal lands, subsistence farming  Lack of agricultural inputs to improve yields  Lack of seed reserves  Areas dependent on other weather systems for water resources  Areas of low soil moisture retention  Lack of recognition and allocation of resources to drought hazard Typical Adverse and Immediate Effects The immediate typical immediate and adverse affects include:-  Rainfall deficit leading to large scale Crop failure.  Reduced income for farmer; reduction of spending from agricultural sector; increase in price of staple foods, increased inflation rates, deterioration of nutritional status, famine, illness, death, reduction of drinking water resources, migration, breakup of communities, loss of livestock. Specific Preparedness Measures Development of inter- institutional response plan is one of the important steps towards a specific preparedness plan.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Typical Post Disaster Needs The typical post disaster needs associated with the drought affected are measures to maintain food security; price stabilization, food subsidies, employment creation programs, general food distribution, supplementary feeding programs, special programs for livestock and pastoralists, complementary water and health programs. Impact Assessment Tools The impact assessment tools used to measure the disaster are nutritional surveys, socio- economic surveys, monitoring of rainfall and hydrological data, satellite imagery. Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Disaster Dangerous Goods/chemicals are any product that corrodes other materials, explodes or is easily ignited, reacts strongly with water, is unstable when exposed to heat or shock, or is otherwise toxic to humans, animals, or the environment. In India, The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989 governs the safe handling, transport and disposal of dangerous goods/chemicals. While this may be so, accidents can and do occur throughout the country on a regular basis. Additionally, while the risk of exposure to radioactive materials in nuclear power facilities, mining operations and storage facilities is strictly regulated, it remains possible for a radioactive materials incident to occur. Causal Phenomenon The causal phenomenon associated with a chemical disaster are:-  Disaster/explosion in a plant or storage facilities handling toxic substances.  Accidents during the transportation of chemicals.  Contamination of food or the environment by misuse of chemicals.  Improper waste management of toxic chemicals.  Technological system failures.  Failures of plant safety design or components.  Natural hazards such as fire, earthquake or landslides.  Arson or sabotage. Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Factors contributing to the vulnerability of a community due to a chemical disaster are:-
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Persons, structures, livestock, crops and environment closest to the scene of an accident are most vulnerable, however, large-scale releases of airborne pollutants may spread for hundreds of kilometers.  Lack of safety features or lack of evacuation plan.  Unawareness by vulnerable persons of the potential danger. Typical Adverse Effects The typical adverse affects associated with a chemical disaster are:-  Physical damage. Damage or destruction may occur to structures and infrastructure. Transportation accidents damage vehicles and other objects on impact. Industrial fires may reach high temperatures and affect large areas.  Casualties. Many people may be killed or injured and require medical treatment.  Environmental. Contamination of air, water supply, land and animal life may occur. Areas may become un-inhabitable for humans and animals. Ecological systems may be disrupted even on a global scale. Possible Risk Reduction Measures Development of a plan, such as the ALERT (Amateur Local Emergency Relief Teams) local level, to assist decision makers and technical personnel to improve community awareness of hazardous installations and aid them in preparing disaster response plans. Specific Preparedness Measures  Hazard mapping  Hazardous materials identification  Inspection of chemical plants and storage facilities  Monitoring toxic waste disposal procedures  Improve fire fighting capacity  Monitoring pollution levels  Prepare and practice evacuation plans  Test warning sirens Typical Post Disaster Needs Evacuation from area; search and rescue; alternative resources of water; cleanup; monitor environmental effects. Impact assessment tools APELL (Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level) process forms for emergency response plan evaluation, CHEMTREC (Chemical Transportation
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Emergency Center) information systems. These tools have to be devised by the local authorities in conjunction with the various associated departments. Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Classifications Dangerous Goods/Chemicals are not classified in the same way as natural hazards. Also, Dangerous Goods/Chemicals are classified differently depending on whether they are being stored or transported. Rules of 1989 have provided a list of 434 chemicals, which have been declared as hazardous and toxic chemicals. Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Accident Prediction While there is no way to predict dangerous goods/chemical disasters, certain areas are at some degree of risk, including those located near national highways, manufacturing, storage or disposal facilities and nuclear power facilities. Prevention, rather than prediction of disasters, is central to avoiding potential damage, loss, or other contamination from hazardous materials. Also, planners while designing and establishing a new chemical/hazardous materials industry should cater for possible risks through ‘Fault Tree Analysis’.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 3 Terrorism and Communal Riots Terrorism Of late a new category of disaster has been added into the already long list of disasters plaguing India, namely, Terrorism. Terrorism can be defined as “ the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.” --FBI Definition Terrorism remains one of the deadliest and most persistent threats to Indian security. Although it can be argued that India once again holds the unique distinction of having a variety of Flavours of Terrorism in the form of Militancy, Insurgency and Separatism. However, for ease of understanding and better assimilation, only the subject of Terrorism will be discussed as the character and modus operandi of the other three are almost similar in nature to that of Terrorism. The motives, perpetrators and methods of operation of terrorist groups in India and the world over are evolving in ways that complicate analysis, collection of data of their activities and to devise means of counter-Terrorist action. The rise of the new breed of terrorist who is interested in inflicting mass death and destruction does not bode well for the future security of Indian interests. These groups can strike at any time, anywhere, spurred by seemingly unrelated events for which they judge innocent citizens to be blameworthy. They have a widening global reach and a high degree of proficiency with more sophisticated weapons and tactics. Categories of Terrorism There are two categories of terrorism:  Domestic  International. Domestic terrorism involves groups or individuals whose activities, conducted with or without foreign influence, are directed at elements of the Indian Government or population. International terrorism involves activity committed by foreign-based groups or individuals who are either directed by countries or groups outside India or whose activities transcend national boundaries.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Terrorist groups generally are non-state-supported (either indigenous or transnational), state-supported, or state-directed. Non-state supported terrorist groups are autonomous and receive no significant support from a government. State-supported groups generally operate independently but receive support from one or more governments. Such support may include weapons, training, money, intelligence, or safe havens. State-directed terrorist organizations act as agents of a government. Such groups receive intelligence, logistics and operational support from the sponsoring government, frequently through diplomatic missions. State-directed terrorism is potentially a deniable and/or relatively inexpensive method of carrying out attacks against an enemy state or its interests, such as the ‘Low Intensity Conflict’ being waged in Jammu and Kashmir and the North – Eastern states of India by our neighbouring countries (to our immediate east and west). Terrorist Groups Operating in India The greatest terrorist threat to India today comes from fundamentalist Islamic extremist groups and to a lesser extent from the various militant factions operating in the North East. Some of these groups, such as the Pakistani based Lashkar e Taiba, Hizbul Mujahhidin, Harkat ul Ansar etc. in Jammu & Kashmir, National Socialist Council of Nagaland(IM)[NSCN (IM)],United Liberation Front of Asom(ULFA) etc. in the North East fit the traditional terrorist mould. These groups have hierarchical structures and receive support from state sponsors. A new Islamic threat is on the rise as a result of the activities of ad hoc terrorist groups in the Southern parts of the country. These groups are even more dangerous in many ways than the traditional groups because they lack a well- established organizational identity and they tend to decentralize and compartmentalize their activities. They are capable of producing sophisticated conventional weapons, as well as chemical and biological agents. They are also less constrained by state sponsors or other benefactors than more traditional terrorist organizations. These new groups seek to punish India by inflicting heavy civilian casualties. Some groups such as the Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) are actively engaged in such activities. The recent bombings of Railway stations, Churches, temples and other places with large concentration of population in Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are a case in point. Both the traditional groups and the newer, ad hoc groups have increased their capability to attack Indian interests. The groups are well funded and some have developed sophisticated international support networks that provide them great freedom of movement and increase their opportunities to attack Indian interests on a global basis. These groups are also attracting more qualified cadres with greater technical skills. Several groups have established supporting infrastructures within India and abroad, such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, the United States and Britain that provide financial, logistics, operational and intelligence support. Although, there is no evidence that these groups are centrally coordinated, it does appear that they collaborate in terrorist actions. Evidence gathered by various Indian and International intelligence agencies, shows that leaders or representatives of different Islamic fundamentalist groups were funded by Pakistan and
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa various Persian Gulf donors to perpetuate acts of violence on innocent civilians in India. Tactics used by Terrorists Terrorists generally adopt by default six basic types of tactics, namely: hijackings, kidnappings, bombings, assassinations, armed assaults and barricade-hostage incidents. A group's objectives and organizational capabilities dictate which tactics it uses. Terrorist organizations typically use hijackings, kidnapping and barricade-hostage incidents when the group wishes to force the targeted party or government into negotiations. The terrorist group frequently is able to obtain the release of prisoners or extort money. Such incidents increase the level of risk to the terrorist organization and require a mature planning, operations, logistics and intelligence capability to successfully conduct the operation. On the other hand, bombings, assassinations and armed assaults are less risky and generally require less organizational capabilities. These tactics tend to be used to accomplish the following goals: 1. Create a climate of fear in a targeted group or nation through a sustained campaign of violence 2. Retaliate for previous incidents or situations affecting the terrorist organization or its causes 3. Negatively affect processes that the terrorist organization sees as against its interests 4. Eliminate specific individuals or groups Attaining the terrorist organization's goals depends on receiving adequate information for planning and executing an operation. Terrorist Goals Terrorist groups intend their terrorist activities to have an emotional impact on the target audience, causing it to act in a manner that furthers the group's objectives and goals. Terrorist operations generally are categorized in terms of their associated goals. These goals traditionally can be divided into five distinct phases:  Recognition phase  Coercion phase  Intimidation phase  Provocation phase  Insurgency support phase Early in their life span, terrorist groups often carry out attacks designed to gain recognition. The objective of these attacks is national and/or international attention for the group and its stated goals or objectives. Groups often mount such attacks, which may involve protracted hostage seizures, hijacking etc against highly visible symbols of state control (e.g., national airlines). Groups intend coercion attacks to force individuals,
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa organizations, or governments to act in a desired manner. Using this strategy, terrorists selectively target facilities with the intent of bringing increasing pressure to bear on the targeted activity. Terrorist attacks designed primarily to intimidate are a means of preventing organizations or governments from acting in a defined manner. Provocation attacks aim to force government security forces to take repressive action against the general populace. These attacks generally are against critical infrastructures, popular or high profile individuals, or important facilities. The goal of these attacks is to demonstrate the weakness of the legitimate government, thus causing an uncoordinated backlash. If the security forces/government succumbs to the provocative trap laid down by the Terrorists in the Provocation phase (which generally is the case), then the victimized population will ease into the Insurgency Support phase as they now start to sympathise with the Terrorists. Terrorism Trends: World in general, India in particular In addition to Terrorists becoming more violent, terrorist groups also have expanded the range of targets that they consider legitimate. Brian Jenkins, formerly the director of the Rand Corporation's Program on Subnational Conflict, has postulated three reasons for this trend:  First, as generational replacement has occurred in terrorist organizations, new leaders have become less concerned with ideological constraints and adverse public opinion. As a result, they are more willing to use excessively violent or shocking tactics.  Second, leaders desire to maintain media attention. Limited acts of terrorism repeated over time have failed to gain desired media attention. To receive attention, terrorists have escalated the level of violence and have used bolder, more shocking tactics designed to force the media and the public to pay attention to the terrorist group and its demands.  Finally, the internal dynamics of terrorist groups require that the organization move inexorably toward its goals. Increasingly violent tactics allow group members to perceive that they are increasingly powerful and are likely to achieve their objectives. Data gathered from 1968 to 1990 substantiates the trend that the number of terrorist groups is increasing and that groups are also more violent. In 1990, there were 70 active terrorist groups throughout the world, compared to 11 identifiable groups in 1968. Although the number of terrorist incidents identified in the 1980s increased by only one-third over those identified in the 1970s, the level of violence increased dramatically. In the 1980s, the number of deaths worldwide attributed to terrorism doubled. There was a 75 percent increase in the number of terrorist incidents resulting in fatalities, a 115 percent increase in incidents resulting in 5 or more deaths and a 135 percent increase in incidents resulting in 10 or more deaths. Pinkerton Risk Assessment Services, an organization that tracks terrorist incidents, recorded an unprecedented 5,404 terrorist incidents in 1992, resulting in over 10,000 deaths. These incidents represent an 11
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa percent increase over 1991 figures. Part of this pattern is attributable to the growth of religious terrorism. Religious terrorists differ from traditional ideological terrorists in that the former are willing to sacrifice to obtain their objective. Consequently, religious terrorists are more likely to use indiscriminate violence. They see themselves as involved in a total war in which there are no innocent parties. In determining operational matters, religious terrorists also are largely unconcerned with public opinion. Some terrorist groups are evolving into new organizational structures that are harder to detect and infiltrate. These terrorist groups are often a collection of factions with common interests. Accordingly, the groups form, change and regroup in response to specific agendas or planned actions. The groups tend to be religious or ethnic organizations that often have major grievances with the government of India. The extremist factions of Islamic fundamentalist groups that are currently emerging fit this pattern. While many are funded by Pakistan or supported by some Arab countries, some emerging groups are not controlled or directed by these states. Instead, they tend to be autonomous in their planning and decision-making functions. There may be dozens of such groups in India waiting for the opportunity to strike. The large numbers of these groups as well as their lack of central direction and changing organizational structures, make them very difficult to crack. Finally, a trend may be developing regarding a sponsoring state's use of terrorists to conduct a proxy war against India. Terrorist groups offer the sponsoring state a deniable method to attack primary Indian interests. In turn, sponsoring states would provide terrorist groups with funding, access to weapons and advanced technologies, intelligence, target planning support, logistics support and secure communications. In times of crisis or conflict, the use of terrorists as proxies is the aspect of terrorism that appears to be the most dangerous to Indian interests because attacks could be directed at facilities critical to force mobilization or crisis management for e.g. the serial Bombay Bomb blasts in 1991. Prediction of Terrorist Attacks To succeed, terrorist operations require detailed information for planning and executing an attack. Many of these organizations have access to intelligence produced by sponsor states or have the ability to produce intelligence required for an attack. Proactive intelligence operations by security forces can be used to deny adversaries information on the movements of key personnel, or the identity and vulnerabilities of critical facilities. Improved methods of intelligence collection can assist security agencies in determining the best security approach to be adopted to protect against terrorist attacks based upon assessed risk levels. An efficient intelligence network, combining the country’s intelligence agencies, to ensure that information is gathered and exchanged at the earliest, will ensure that terrorists are denied the critical information required to plan an attack and will also aid in the implementation of security countermeasures that are commensurate with the assessed level of risk.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Communal Riots India in the past has been a victim to countless instances of communal riots. During such incidents, one of the most troubling aspects is the level of violence. While all riots tend to be destructive, extremely high levels of violence mark communal riots, often resulting in numerous deaths as well as maiming, looting and destruction of property owned by the ethnic group targeted by the rioters. However, in understanding the causes of communal riots, researchers have often tended to place too much emphasis on rioters using riot as a tool to seek redress for perceived socio-economic or political grievances. Instead, two main aspects better describe the dynamics governing the size, brutality and virulence of communal riots: (Horowitz)  "Lucid madness." Although communal riots often suddenly erupt into violence Horowitz pointed out, study has indicated that such riots are not unplanned. To the contrary, his research has shown that while riots may take on the tone of an "orgy of killing" they also include a high degree of rational planning - deadly mix of passion and calculation. Targets for violence are often carefully selected and rioters have even been found to plan traps for specific individuals or to devise strategies to maximize causalities and damage to the targeted ethnic group.  Emotion, insecurity and rumors. Building on his previous point, Horowitz argued that an insidious combination of anxiety and hatred were a significant motivator for many rioters. In particular, he noted that his research has discovered that rumors had frequently played a major role in motivating crowds. They were almost always framed in a way that the rioters saw their actions as a necessary preemptive action or strike against a plan or action by the rival ethnic group. Ironically, Horowitz explained, as these rumors were nearly always baseless, the actions of the rioters frequently created a self- fulfilling prophecy. The rioters overestimated the threat and took disproportionate action; thereby creating a threat where it didn't exist when the victimized ethnic group subsequently responded in the wake of the riot. Why do People Participate in Communal Riots? One question often nagging experts was to the trigger mechanism that was needed to goad perfectly rational people to embark on a wanton destructive spree. It has now been found that four main elements are needed to actively induce individuals to join in a communal riot:  A sense of reduced personal risk. Contrary to popular opinion, studies consistently show that rioters tend to be rational decision makers. Participants in communal riots use a rational decision-making process where they seek to maximize destruction while minimizing personal risk. Therefore, rioters seek to attack "strong targets at weak moments" when there is a reduced risk of
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa punishment by government agencies or retaliation by the targeted ethnic group.  A sense of personal justification. Most rioters see themselves as "heroes" defending their ethnic group. People participating in communal riots often find it personally gratifying. Rioters not only see their cause as righteous, but as an act of defense (even if preemptively) against perceived imminent and grave threat.  An intense emotional response to a recent event. It has also been seen that not only in such cases did "aggression feel good," for the rioters but it often was also rooted in a negative response to recent events. This creates an opportunity for the rioters to not only see their actions as heroic, but also as an opportunity to correct a perceived social, economic, or political wrong against their own ethnic group. Thereby communal riots provide an opportunity for the release of built-up group or communal tensions and anger.  An inherently suspicious and hostile relationship with the other ethnic group. Research has indicated that rioters in general share hatred of the targeted ethnic group. This usually is manifested by an obsessive type of ethnic hatred where the rioters believe that all members of the targeted ethnic group think the same way on socio-economic and political issues and therefore felt a general sense of repulsion of the ethnic group as a whole. Examining Civil Society and Ethnic Riots In examining the relationships and social structures within multiethnic societies, it has been seen that the viability of intra and inter ethnic social networks has played an important role in how susceptible the society has been to lethal communal riots. More specifically, it has been indicated that societies without strong inter ethnic social structures were more prone to ethnic violence. Elaborating upon the importance of inter ethnic social structures in defusing ethnic tensions, it has been proved by researchers that both formal organized associations (such as professional associations or unions) and informal or neighbourhood-level associations (such as book or sports clubs) tend to be helpful. However, research has also found that more formal organized social structures appear to be able to better withstand ethnic tensions because these types of organization not only provide for stronger personal and professional bonds between individuals in different ethnic groups, but also provide for important informal channels of inter ethnic communication. (Varshney) Civil Society Structures – Tool to Combat Ethnic Violence To understand how civil society structures could be used effectively to help lessen ethnic violence, social scientists and researchers had examined the elements in multi ethnic societies that have been prone to violent ethnic violence and riots as well as those that have been able to weather such tensions largely peacefully. Yet although these researchers had clearly found a link between inter ethnic civil society structures and
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa lower incidences of ethnic violence, it was observed with concern that civil society tools were frequently under utilized as a tool to combat ethnic tensions, whereas it can be argued that civil society reforms have already proven in several cases to be a valuable tool in defusing some of the underlying elements that serve to create an atmosphere where communal riots are likely to occur. For example, research of cities in India which have proven to be less riot prone indicates that the inter ethnic bonds and communication structures facilitated by organized professional associations have proven to be a valuable tool in stopping rumors before they reach critical mass within the community. Such social structures have also been shown to provide a vital unofficial channel of communication to leaders and opinion makers in both ethnic communities that can be used in crisis management. Research indicates that neighbourhood-level social structures can provide an important opportunity for everyday inter ethnic interaction that is helpful in combating perceptions by individuals that all members of a certain ethnic group think or felt the same way about controversial social, religious, economic, or political issues. In conclusion, it is emphasized that the type of civil society mechanisms described do not occur naturally in areas with very strict ethnic division lines, active facilitation is needed by the state or other actors. It is also stressed that while it is not possible to completely eliminate ethnic conflict, the proper application of such civil society tools can help reduce and manage ethnic violence in multi ethnic societies.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 4 Disaster and its Impact On Infrastructure Introduction When a disaster occurs, it has a cascading effect because of its impact on the infrastructure: transportation, utilities, communications systems, fuel supplies and water suppliesthe services and delivery systems on which we depend. When one of these important elements in our support system breaks down, it has a domino effect, causing other elements to falter. When multiple elements break down, the effect can be crippling. Some of the ways in which the infrastructure can be affected in a disaster or emergency are shown below. Service Effect Transportation Inability to get emergency service personnel into the affected area.Inability to transport victims away from the area. Electrical Increased risk of fire and electrical shock. Possible disruption to transportation system if downed lines are across roads. Telephone Lost contact between victims, service providers and family members. System overload due to calls from or to friends or relatives Water Disruption of service to homes, businesses and medical providers. Inadequate water supply for firefighting. Increased risk to public health if there is extensive damage to the water supply or if it becomes contaminated.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Fuel Supplies Increased risk of fire or explosion from ruptured fuel lines. Risk of asphyxiation from natural gas leaks in confined areas. Emergency Services Each instance of damage to the infrastructure may severely restrict the abilities of police, fire and paramedic/medical services to provide service following a disaster. Some types of damage and their effects on emergency services are shown in the table 9.1 below. Type Of Damage Effect On Emergency Services Road  Inability to assess damage accurately.  Ambulances prevented from reaching victims and/or victims prevented from reaching emergency medical services.  Police prevented from reaching areas of civil unrest.  Fire departments prevented from getting to fires.  Flow of needed supplies is interrupted. Structural  Damaged hospitals unable to receive patients.  Increased risk of damage from falling debris. Disrupted Communication  Victims unable to call for help.  Coordination of services is hampered. Fuel Line Damage  Fire and paramedic services overburdened. Disrupted Water Service  Firefighting capabilities restricted.  Medical facilities hampered. Table 4.1. Possible Effects Of Damage On Emergency Service Providers Service Priorities As emergency services are likely to have inadequate resources to meet the needs in a disaster situation, these resources must be applied according to highest priority need:  Police/Law Enforcement agencies: Establish order and safe ingress/egress to and from the disaster area.  Fire: Suppression of major fires.  Paramedic/Medical Service: Life-threatening injuries.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Disaster Relief Workers: Assistance to victims Lower priority needs may have to be met in other ways. Structural And Nonstructural Hazards due to Disasters During and following a disaster, damage to building structures presents one of the greatest hazards. Damage will vary according to the type of disaster, the type and age of the structure and location in relation to the disaster center. The following is an overview of disaster hazards related to building structures and their contents. Hazards Related To Structural Type High-Rise And Apartment Buildings Engineered buildings, such as most high-rise structures, have performed well in earthquakes, bomb attacks and other disasters. Older high-rise buildings with steel and concrete construction are more susceptible to damage than the newer ones, which use curtain construction and prefabricated panels. Primary hazards in and around high-rise buildings include:  Broken glass.  Falling panels. Hazards in and around apartment buildings depend largely on the age and condition of the structure. Hazards may include:  Collapsing walkways and stairways.  Crumbling cornices and other trim.  Broken glass. Independent Homes Age, type of construction and type of disaster are major factors in potential damage to independent homes and garages. Older homes constructed of unreinforced brick are less stable than newer construction. Porches without support beams may collapse. Damage to single homes from earthquakes, Tropical Cyclones and floods can range from little damage to total destruction, e.g. Latur and Gujarat earthquakes. Following a disaster event, there is the potential for further collapse and fire due to ruptured gas lines, short circuit etc.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Thatched/Semi Thatched Homes When thatched and semi thatched homes are displaced in a disaster (whether earthquake, storm, flood, or other), it may lead to large-scale fires hazards esp. during earthquakes and storms. Other Public Places Shopping arcades, sports arenas, airports, places of worship and other places where people gather may pose hazards in some types of disasters. For example, in an earthquake, terrorist attacks; bomb blasts, overhead structures may collapse or widespread panic in large crowds can result in casualties. Hazards Related to Nonstructural Type Fixtures and items within a home, garage, or office can pose hazards during or after a disaster event. The following are examples of some of the nonstructural hazards that may be encountered:  Gas line ruptures from cooking ranges displaced by shock or water.  Damage from falling books, dishes, or other cabinet contents.  Risk of injury or electric shock from displaced appliances and office equipment.  Hazardous products within reach of children.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 5 Disaster Hazard Mitigation for Natural and Manmade Disasters Introduction Regardless of the event or the amount of warning offered, there are safety precautions that one can take to reduce or prevent injury. These measures include:  Personal safety.  Home and worksite preparation.  Community preparation. Personal Safety The personal safety measures that one takes depends on the circumstances one finds himself/herself in. Precautions for natural hazards are shown in preceding pages. Earthquake Before  Have a home earthquake plan and know what to do after the earthquake occurs.  Have a plan for reuniting all family members after an earthquake occurs.  Have an out-of-state family phone contact.  Have supplies on hand including water, a torch, a portable radio, food, a fire extinguisher and tools.  Bolt bookshelves, cabinets and other heavy furniture that is likely to fall during the event.  Move beds away from windows. During  Move pictures and other hanging objects away from beds.  Keep a pair of shoes/slippers next to your bed to avoid stepping on glass and other debris.  Drop, cover and hold.  Get under a heavy table or desk and hold on, or sit or stand against an inside wall.  Keep away from windows.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa After If indoors, stay there.  If outdoors, stay outdoors away from falling debris, trees and power lines.  If in your car, drive to a clear spot and stay in the car. Avoid stopping on or under flyovers/bridges etc.  Do not use elevators.  Expect aftershocks. These are just as serious as the main earthquake.  Put on shoes to protect from broken glass.  Check for injuries and fires.  Use a torch to inspect your residence for damage including gas, water and electrical lines and appliances.  If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve/regulator. Switch off individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses), and then switch off the main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).  Do not go into damaged areas.  Do not use telephones except in emergencies.  Do not use vehicles except in emergencies.  Use a portable radio for information.  Evacuate if your home is unsafe Tropical Cyclones Before  Know the risks of the area, the evacuation routes and the location of shelters.  Have a home cyclone plan of action.  Know what a cyclone “watch” and “warning” means. [Note: A cyclone watch means a cyclone may hit your area. A cyclone warning means such a cyclone is headed for your area.]  Have a portable radio and torch, as well as other supplies.  Ensure that enough nonperishable food and water supplies are on hand to last for at least 2 weeks.  Flood proof your home.  Keep trees trimmed.  Review your insurance policy to ensure that it provides adequate coverage. During Watch Phase (24-48 hours before landfall):  Board up all windows.  Fill your car’s tank and prepare to evacuate.  Check batteries and stock up on canned/dry food, medical supplies and drinking water.  Bring in outside objects (e.g., garbage cans, lawn furniture, bicycles).  Listen to the advice of local officials and evacuate if told to do so.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Warning Phase (24 hours or less before landfall):  Listen to the advice of local officials and evacuate if told to do so.  If you are not advised to evacuate, stay indoors and away from windows.  Stay away from floodwaters; never drive through them.  Be aware of the calm “eye”; the storm is not over.  Be ALERT for more dangers After  Wait until an area is declared safe before entering  Use a torch to inspect for damage including gas, water and electrical lines and appliances.  Stay away from downed power lines.  If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve/regulator. Switch off individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses) and then switch off the main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).  Do not use telephones except in emergencies.  Use a portable radio for information. Flood Before  Know the flood risk and the elevation of the area.  Prepare a home flood evacuation or escape plan.  Get flood insurance, if available.  Keep insurance papers, important documents and other valuables in a safe-deposit box.  Know what a flood and a flash flood “watch” and “warning” mean. [Note: A flood watch means a slow rising flood is possible for your area. A flood warning means flooding is already occurring or will occur soon in your area. A flash flood watch means there is a chance that flashes flooding could occur anytime within the next few hours. A flash flood warning means you may only have seconds to evacuate to higher ground.]  Have a family plan and choose a safe area in advance.  Have a portable radio, torch and emergency supplies. During Watch Phase (2-3 days for flood; 2-12 hours for flash flood):  Sandbag windows and doors.  Move furniture and other items to higher levels.  Fill your car’s tank.  Listen to radio or TV for up-to-the-minute information.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Warning Phase (24-48 hours for flood; 0-1 hour or flash flood):  Use telephones only for life-threatening emergencies.  Evacuate, if necessary and follow instructions.  Do not walk or drive through floodwaters.  Stay off bridges where water is covering them.  Heed barricades blocking roads.  Keep away from waterways during heavy rain. If you are in a valley area and hear a warning, get out of your car and get to high ground immediately.  Keep out of storm drains and irrigation ditches. After  Listen to a portable radio for information.  Boil drinking water before using (rolling boil for 10 minutes). Wells should be pumped out and the water tested for purity before drinking.  Use a torch to check for damage including gas, water and electrical lines and appliances.  If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve. Switch off individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses), and then switch off the main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).  Stay out of the disaster area.  Do not use telephones except in emergencies.  Do not use vehicles except in emergencies. Handling Chemicals Prevention of injury from hazardous materials in the home especially in rural India, where farming activity involves the usage and handling of farm related chemicals and pesticides is routine, chiefly lies in proper storage and handling. A simple acronym for safe storage procedures is Q.S.D.S. (Quantity, Storage, Disposal, Separation)  Quantity Limit the quantity of hazardous materials in storage.  Storage Isolate products in approved containers, store them inside closed cabinets and protect them from sources of ignition. Keep containers in storage tightly covered.  Disposal Dispose products that are no longer necessary by disposing off them properly.  Separation Separate incompatible materials (e.g., chlorine products and sulphuric - acid). When handling hazardous materials, be sure to:  Read the warnings on product labels.  Use the safety precautions (e.g., gloves, goggles, or breathing mask) recommended by the manufacturer.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Limit contact to the degree possible. If you are not sure of the product with which you are dealingor if the product produces a noxious odor, smoke, or steamleave the area immediately. Call the local emergency service operator [usually 100(police), 101(fire), 102(Ambulance)] and observe the material from uphill, upwind and at a distance until qualified personnel arrive. If necessary, enlist the help of neighbours to warn others of the danger. If evacuation is required, evacuate to an upwind location. Moving uphill and upwind will prevent reintroduction to the hazard via the wind. Preparation for Potential Terrorist Attacks/Communal Riots Devastating acts, such as the series of bomb blasts at residential areas, public places, e.g. Delhi, Mumbai, Jammu & Kashmir, seizure of temples e.g. Akshardham in Gujarat, etc. have left many concerned about the possibility of future incidents in India and their potential impact. They have raised uncertainty about what might happen next, thus increasing stress levels. Nevertheless, there are things that can be done to prepare for the unexpected and reduce the stress that one may feel now and later should another emergency arise. Taking preparatory action can reassure an individual and his/her family, by instilling in them a spirit of self-confidence, by exerting a measure of control even in the face of such events. How To Prepare Oneself Finding out what can happen is the first step. Once it has been determined that disastrous events are possible and their potential of their occurrence in a community is high, it is important that individuals discuss them with their family or household. Develop a disaster/emergency plan together.  Create an emergency contact plan. Choose an out-station contact your family or household can call or e-mail to check on each other should a disaster/emergency occur. Your selected contact should live location that the probability of them being affected by the same disaster would be unlikely and they should know they are the chosen contact. Make sure every household member has that contact's and each other's, e-mail addresses and telephone numbers (home, work and cell). Leave these contact numbers at your children's schools, if you have children, and at your workplace. Your family should know that if telephones are not working, they need to be patient and try again later or try e-mail. Many people flood the telephone lines when emergencies happen but e-mail can sometimes get through when calls don't.  Fix a meeting place (Rendezvous). Having a predetermined meeting place away from your home will save time and minimize confusion should your home be affected or the area evacuated. You may even want to make arrangements to stay with a family member or friend in case of an emergency. Be sure to include any pets in these plans, since pets are not permitted in shelters and most hotels will not accept them.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Prepare a disaster supplies kit. If you need to evacuate your home or a Curfew is imposed, having some essential supplies on hand will make you and your family more comfortable. Prepare a disaster supplies kit in an easy-to-carry container such as a Rucksack or suitcase. Include "special needs" items for any member of your household (infant food or items for people with disabilities or older people), first aid supplies (including prescription medications), a change of clothing for each household member, a sleeping bag or bedroll for each, a battery powered radio and extra batteries, food, bottled water and tools. It is also a good idea to include some cash and copies of important family documents (birth certificates, passports and licenses) in your kit. Copies of essential documents-like powers of attorney, birth and marriage certificates, insurance policies, life insurance beneficiary designations and a copy of your will-should also be kept in a safe location outside your home. A safe deposit box or the home of a friend or family member who lives out of town is a good choice.  Check on the school emergency plan of school-age children if any. You need to know if they will keep children at school until a parent or designated adult can pick them up or send them home on their own. Be sure that the school has updated information about how to reach parents and responsible caregivers to arrange for pickup. Ask what type of authorization the school may require to release a child to someone you designate, if you are not able to pick up your child. During times of emergency the school telephones may be overwhelmed with calls. However, in India most of the schools lack a disaster management plan as disasters are considered a rare possibility, also, the lack of a formal Disaster Management education contributes to the mindset. The Education Ministry authorities should hence make it mandatory for all schools and colleges to have a disaster/emergency plan and the same should be added to the students’ curriculum and be rehearsed on a monthly basis. When Disaster Strikes When disaster strikes in the form of a bomb blast, communal riot or if manifested in any other form that could prove to be dangerous to the community in general and your family in particular, adhering to the following basic suggestions would go a long way in saving you from the impending event:  Remain calm and be patient.  Follow the advice of local police/emergency officials.  Listen to your radio or television for news and instructions.  If the disaster occurs near you, check for injuries. Give first aid and get help for seriously injured people.  If the disaster occurs near your home while you are there, check for damage using a torch. Do not light matches or candles or turn on electrical switches. Check for fires, fire hazards and other household hazards. Sniff for gas leaks, if you smell gas or suspect a leak, turn off the main gas valve, open windows, and get everyone outside quickly.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Shut off any other damaged utilities.  Confine or secure your pets.  Call your family contact—do not use the telephone again unless it is a life- threatening emergency.  Check on your neighbours, especially those who are elderly or disabled. Lessons from the past…. As is learnt from the events of the serial bomb blasts in New Delhi, Mumbai, Jammu and Kashmir or communal conflagrations in Gujarat or after the Babri Masjid demolition, the following things can happen/expected to happen:  There can be significant numbers of casualties and/or damage to buildings and the infrastructure. Contact office/employers so that up-to-date information about any medical needs you may have and on how to contact your designated beneficiaries can be conveyed to you.  Heavy law enforcement involvement at local, state and National levels follows a terrorist attack/communal riot due to the event's criminal nature.  Health and mental health resources in the affected communities can be strained to their limits, maybe even overwhelmed.  Extensive media coverage, strong public fear and international implications and consequences can continue for a prolonged period.  Workplaces and schools may be closed, and there may be restrictions on domestic and international travel.  You and your family or household may have to evacuate an area, avoiding roads blocked for your safety.  Clean up may take many months.  Usually after a terrorist attack tensions may flare up leading to Communal violence and large scale riots. Evacuation of affected Area If local police/emergency authorities ask you to leave your home, they have a good reason to make this request, and you should heed the advice immediately. Listen to your radio or television and follow the instructions of local police/emergency officials and keep these simple tips in mind:-  Wear long-sleeved shirts, long pants/salwar kameez and sturdy shoes so you can be protected as much as possible as also this will aid in quicker mobility.  Take your disaster supplies kit.  Take your pets with you; do not leave them behind. Because pets are not permitted in public shelters, follow your plan to go to a relative's or friend's home.  Lock your home.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Use travel routes specified by local authorities—don't use shortcuts because certain areas may be impassable or dangerous.  Stay away from downed power lines. Heed to local authorities advise. Your local authorities will provide you with the most accurate information specific to an event in your area. Staying tuned to local radio and television and following their instructions is your safest choice. If you're sure you have time:  Call your family contact to tell them where you are going and when you expect to arrive.  Shut off water, gas and electricity before leaving. Curfew If a curfew is imposed in your area, what they mean is for you to remain inside your home or office and protect yourself there. Close and lock all windows and exterior doors. Get your disaster supplies kit, and make sure the radio is working. Go to an interior room without windows. Keep listening to your radio or television until you are told all is safe or you are told to evacuate. Local officials may call for evacuation in specific areas at greatest risk in your community. Additional Positive Steps Raw, unedited footage of terrorism events and people's reaction to those events can be very upsetting, especially to children. It is not recommend that children watch television news reports about such events, especially if the news reports show images over and over again about the same incident. Young children do not realize that it is repeated video footage, and think the event is happening again and again. Adults may also need to give themselves a break from watching disturbing footage. However, listening to local radio and television reports will provide you with the most accurate information from responsible governmental authorities on what's happening and what actions you will need to take. Some arrangements to take turns listening to the news with other adult members of your household could be made. Another useful preparation includes learning some basic first aid. In an emergency situation, you would need to tend to your own well being first and then consider first aid for others immediately around you, including possibly assisting injured people to evacuate a building if necessary.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa People who may have come into contact with a biological or chemical agent may need to go through a decontamination procedure and receive medical attention. Listen to the advice of local officials on the radio or television to determine what steps you will need to take to protect yourself and your family. As emergency services will likely be overwhelmed, only call 100 or 102 for life-threatening emergencies. First Aid (International Red Cross Procedure) If you encounter someone who is injured, apply the emergency action steps: Check- Call-Care.  Check the scene to make sure it is safe for you to approach. Then check the victim for unconsciousness and life-threatening conditions. Someone who has a life- threatening condition, such as not breathing or severe bleeding, requires immediate care by trained responders and may require treatment by medical professionals.  Call out for help.  Care for someone who is hurt till professional help arrives. Control Bleeding o Cover the wound with a dressing, and press firmly against the wound (direct pressure). o Elevate the injured area above the level of the heart if you do not suspect that the victim has a broken bone. o Cover the dressing with a roller bandage. o If the bleeding does not stop: o Apply additional dressings and bandages. o Use a pressure point to squeeze the artery against the bone. o Provide care for shock. Care for Shock o Keep the victim from getting chilled or overheated. o Elevate the legs about 12 inches (if broken bones are not suspected). o Do not give food or drink to the victim. Tend Burns o Stop the burning by cooling the burn with large amounts of water. o Cover the burn with dry, clean dressings or cloth.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Care for Injuries to Muscles, Bones and Joints o Rest the injured part. o Apply ice or a cold pack to control swelling and reduce pain. o Avoid any movement or activity that causes pain. o If you must move the victim because the scene is becoming unsafe, try to immobilize the injured part to keep it from moving. Be Aware of Biological/Radiological Exposure Listen to local radio and television reports for the most accurate information from responsible governmental and medical authorities on what's happening and what actions you will need to take. Reduce Any Care Risks The risk of getting a disease while giving first aid is extremely rare. However, to reduce the risk even further: o Avoid direct contact with blood and other body fluids. o Use protective equipment, such as disposable gloves and breathing barriers. o Thoroughly wash your hands with soap and water immediately after giving care. It is important to be prepared for an emergency and to know how to give emergency care.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 6 Home and Worksite Preparations - Assembling and Storing Survival Supplies in Anticipation of a Potential Disaster Preparedness is the key to survival in a disaster or emergency. Individuals, families and worksites can take steps that will help minimize structural and nonstructural hazards during a disaster, facilitate escape and promote survival in the period immediately following the event. Reducing Structural And Nonstructural Hazards Many injuries from structural and nonstructural hazards are easily preventable. Some steps that you can take to reducing structural and nonstructural hazards are shown in the table 6.1 below. Type Of Hazard Precautions Structural  Re-inforce/Retro-fit older houses.  Board or place protective tape on windows and glass doors to minimize flying glass.  Consult local architect for suitable disaster proof design if located in high-risk zone.  Check standard/quality of materials used in construction when moving into an apartment. Nonstructural  Anchor such furniture as bookshelves, cabinets and grandfather clocks to the wall.  Secure appliances and office equipment in place with industrial-strength Velcro7.  Secure cabinet doors with childproof fasteners.  Locate and label gas, electricity and water shut-offs before disasters occur. After a disaster, shut off the utilities as needed to prevent fires and other risks. Store a shut- off wrench where it will be immediately available.  Invest in a portable fire extinguisher. Table 6.1.Precautions Against Structural And Nonstructural Hazards You can cope best by preparing for disaster before it strikes. One way to prepare is by assembling a Disaster Supplies Kit. Once disaster hits, you won’t have time to shop or search for supplies. But if you’ve gathered supplies in advance, you and your family can endure an evacuation or home confinement. Kit Preparation  Review the checklist given in the following pages.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Gather the supplies/alternatives that are listed.  Place the supplies you need for an evacuation in an easy-to-carry bag/container. These supplies are listed with an asterisk (*). Water Store water in plastic containers such as soft drink bottles. Avoid using containers that will decompose or break, such as milk cartons or glass bottles. A normally active person needs to drink at least 2.5 litres of water each day. Hot environments and intense physical activity can double that amount. Children, nursing mothers and ill people will need more.  Store 5 litres of water per person per day (2.5 ltrs for drinking, 2.5 ltrs for food preparation/sanitation.)*  Keep at least a 3-day supply of water for each person in your household. If you have questions about the quality of the water, purify it before drinking. You can heat water to a rolling boil for 10 minutes or use commercial purification tablets to purify the water. You can also use household liquid chlorine bleach if it is pure, unscented 5.25% sodium hypochlorite. To purify water, use the following table as a guide: WATER QUANTITY BLEACH ADDED 1 ltr 5 ltrs 20 ltrs 4 Drops 16 Drops 1 Teaspoon 6.2 Ratios For Purifying Water With Bleach After adding bleach, shake or stir the water container and let it stand thirty minutes before consumption. Clothing And Bedding *Include at least one complete change of clothing and footwear per person.  Sturdy shoes or boots*  Hat and gloves  Thermal underwear  Sunglasses  Rain coat*  Blankets or sleeping bags*
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Food Store at least a 3-day supply of nonperishable food. Select foods that require no refrigeration, preparation, or cooking and little or no water. If you must heat food, pack a can of Kerosene and a small stove. Select food items that are compact and lightweight. *Include a selection of the following foods in your Disaster Supplies Kit:  Ready-to-eat canned meats, fruits and vegetables, noodles, Khasta poori  Canned juices, milk, soup (if powdered, store extra water)  Staplessugar, salt, pepper, masala  High-energy foodsbutter/ghee, biscuits, chocolate bars etc  Vitamins  Foods for infants, elderly persons or persons on special diets  Comfort/stress foodshome made sweets, hard candy, sweetened cereals, lollipops, instant coffee, tea bags First Aid Kit Assemble a first aid kit for your home and one for car/cars. A first aid kit* should include:  Sterile adhesive bandages in assorted sizes  2-inch sterile gauze pads (4-6)  4-inch sterile gauze pads (4-6)  Hypoallergenic adhesive tape  Triangular bandages (3)  Needle  Moistened napkins  Antiseptic  Thermometer  Tongue blades (2)  Tube of petroleum jelly or other lubricant  Assorted sizes of safety pins  Cleaning agent/soap  Latex gloves (2 pair)  Sunscreen  2-inch sterile roller bandages (3 rolls)  3-inch sterile roller bandages (3 rolls)  Scissors  Tweezers Nonprescription/prescription Drugs  Aspirin or nonaspirin pain reliever
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Anti-diarrhea medication  Antacid (for stomach upset)  Syrup of Ipecac (used to induce vomiting if advised by the Poison Control Center)  Laxative  Activated charcoal (used if advised by the Poison Control Center)  Any other drugs prescribed by physician for family members suffering from diabetes, Hyper tension, Heart diseases etc Tools And Supplies  Tiffin carrier or paper cups, plates and plastic utensils*  Emergency preparedness manual*  Battery-operated radio and extra batteries*  Torch and extra batteries*  Cash or Credit Cards, change*  Matches in a waterproof container  Aluminum foil  Plastic storage containers  Paper, pencil  Needles, thread  Medicine dropper  Shut-off wrench, to turn off household gas and water  Whistle  Plastic sheeting  Map of the area (for locating shelters)  Can opener, utility knife*  Fire extinguisher: small canister, ABC type  Tube tent/Polythene sheet (12’x12’)  Pliers  Tape  Nylon rope Sanitation  Toilet paper, napkins*  Soap, liquid detergent*  Feminine supplies*  Personal hygiene items*  Plastic garbage bags, ties (for personal sanitation uses)  Plastic bucket with tight lid  Disinfectant/Dettol  Household chlorine bleach
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Special Items Remember family members with special needs, such as infants and elderly or disabled persons. For infants*  Formula (Amul, Nestle, Farex)  Diapers  Bottles  Powdered milk  Medications For Adults*  Heart and high blood pressure medication  Insulin  Prescription drugs  Denture needs  Contact lenses and supplies  Extra eye glasses Entertainmentgames and books Important Family Documents Keep these records in a waterproof, portable container.  Will, insurance policies, contracts, deeds, stocks and bonds  Passports, social security cards, immunization records  Bank account numbers  Credit card account numbers and companies  Inventory of valuable household goods, important telephone numbers  Family records (birth, marriage, death certificates) Creating A Family Disaster Plan Mitigation Drills In The Home Formulation of plan. . .  Contact your local emergency management office and your local Indian Red Cross chapter. - Find out which disasters are most likely to happen in your community. - Ask how you would be warned.
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa - Find out how to prepare for each type of disaster.  Meet with your family. - Discuss the types of disasters that could occur. - Explain how to prepare and respond. - Discuss what to do if advised to evacuate. - Practice what you have discussed.  Plan how your family will stay in contact if separated by disaster. - Pick two meeting places:  A location, a safe distance from your home in case of fire/any other disaster.  A place outside your neighbourhood in case you can’t return home.  Choose an out-of-state family/friend as an “SOS (Save Our Souls) contact” for everyone to call. o Complete the following steps.  Paste emergency telephone numbers by every phone.  Show responsible family members how and when to shut off water, gas and electricity at main switches.  Contact your local fire department to learn about home fire hazards. - Learn first aid and CPR. Contact your local Indian Red Cross chapter for information and training.  Meet with your neighbours. - Plan how the neighbourhood could work together after a disaster. Know your neighbours’ skills (medical, technical). - Consider how you could help neighbours who have special needs, such as elderly or disabled persons. - Make plans for childcare in case parents can’t get home. Emergency Evacuation Planning Develop an evacuation plan at home or work place that provides for escape from every room, as part of your emergency evacuation plan:  Consider the needs of children and physically challenged individuals.  Inform all family members of the plan
Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Display the emergency evacuation plan at a prominent place in the office.  Run practice escape drills.

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DISASTER PREPAREDNESS

  • 1.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa DISASTER PREPAREDNESS Lt Col.K.C.MONNAPPA MA Social Work (Delhi University) Dip Sustainable Development CEU Hungary
  • 2.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 1 Disasters WhatIs A Disaster? The United Nations defines disasters as “…the occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of a society (or community). The Webster’s Dictionary, defines disaster as “ any event that overwhelms existing resources to deal with the event…” In essence it is a situation / event or series of events which gives rise to casualties and / or damage or loss of property, infrastructure, essential services or means of livelihood or a scale that is beyond the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with unaided. (Manual on Disaster Management in India). Disasters: The Indian Context India, a land characterized by unique geo - climatic conditions is particularly vulnerable to Natural disasters. Also of late, it has seen the rise of man - made disasters as well. Disasters occur with unfailing regularity and despite better preparedness to meet all such contingencies, the economic and social costs on account of losses caused by natural disasters continue to mount year after year. The list of hazard type is very long. Many occur infrequently or impact a very small population. Other hazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur in areas that are prepared to deal with them and seldom become disasters. However from the perspective of the disaster victim it is not particularly useful to distinguish between minor and major disasters. Some disasters are now of limited interest to the International community. These include avalanches, fogs, frost, hail, lightening, snowstorms and tornadoes. The international interest is less for these hazards because their impacts affect relatively few people and the countries in which they normally occur have sufficient resources and systems in place to respond without external assistance. There are several hazards types for which there is widespread concern. They can be categorized as follows:-  Sudden onset hazards. (Geological and climatic hazards) such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides, etc.  Slow onset hazards. (Environment hazards) such as drought, famine, environmental degradation, desertification, deforestation, pest infestation etc.  Industrial/Technological hazards. System failures, accidents, spillages, explosions, fires, etc.
  • 3.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Epidemics.Water and/or food borne diseases, communicable diseases, vector borne diseases, complications from wounds, etc. Disasters may be natural or caused by human actions, may occur in any season of the year and may cover a limited or a wide-ranging geographic area. The following are some examples of the wide range of events that may reach disaster proportions:  Earthquake  Flood  Act of terrorism (e.g., bombing)  Civil disturbance (e.g., riot)  Hazardous materials incident  Tropical cyclones  Drought  Landslides  Forest fires  Avalanches  Pest infestations It is pertinent to mention that whatever the cause, disasters have several key elements in common:  The event is relatively unexpected, with little or no prior warning or opportunity to prepare.  Available personnel and emergency services may not be available during the initial stages of a disaster because of demands for their services.  Lives, health and the environment are endangered. Disaster Threats in India India is plagued by a variety of Disasters at any given time. The potential threat of different types of disasters varies across the country. Floods could be ravaging the fertile plains of Assam in the East while Gujarat and Rajasthan could be reeling under the influence of drought. A cold wave could be gripping the Northern parts of the country while the Southern states could be enjoying a relatively warm and pleasant climate. Add to this, the calamitous cyclone that unleashes itself in the coastal areas of the country and the earthquakes that frequent the states located in the Himalayas. The Gujarat earthquake and the Orissa cyclones are a case in point, which highlights the calamity and impact of such an event on an unsuspecting population. Man made disasters such as ‘Acts of terrorism’ (Bombay Bomb blasts), Civil disturbance (Gujarat riots), Hazardous Materials Accidents (Bhopal Gas Tragedy) have contributed its share in making India a land of ‘Myriad Hazards’ – both manmade and natural.
  • 4.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Phases OfDisaster Disasters can be viewed as a series of phases on a time continuum. There are basically two types of disasters – Rapid onset disasters and Slow onset disasters. Identifying and understanding phases in these disasters helps to describe disaster related needs and to conceptualize appropriate Disaster Management activities. Rapid Onset Disasters The phases discussed below correspond to the time sequence following the occurrence of a Rapid Onset disaster. The phases are:-  The Relief phase. It is the period immediately following the occurrence of a sudden disaster (or the late discovery of a neglected/deteriorated slow-onset situation) when exceptional measures have to be taken to search and find the survivors as well as their basic needs for shelter, water, food and medical care.  Rehabilitation phase. This phase involves the operations and decisions taken after disaster with a view to restore a stricken community to its former living conditions, while encouraging and facilitating the necessary adjustments to the changes caused by disasters.  Reconstruction phase. This involves the action taken to re-establish a community after a period of rehabilitation subsequent to a disaster. Actions would include construction of permanent housing, full restoration of all services and complete resumption of the pre-disaster state.  Mitigation phase. It is the collective term used to encompass all actions taken prior to the occurrence of a disaster (pre-disaster measures) including preparedness and long-term risk reduction measures.  Preparedness phase. It consists of activities designed to minimize loss and damage, organize the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened location and facilitate timely and effective rescue, relief and rehabilitation. Slow Onset Disasters The sequence of a disaster continuum for slow onset disasters is similar in framework to that as in Rapid Onset disasters but has important distinctions. The terms and definitions discussed below amplify those additions and modifications:-  Early warning phase. It is the process of monitoring the situations in communities and areas known to be vulnerable to slow onset disasters. For example, famine early warning may be reflected in such indicators as drought, livestock sales or changes in economic conditions. The purpose of early warning
  • 5.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa is toenable remedial measures to be initiated and to provide more timely and effective relief including through disaster preparedness actions.  Emergency relief phase. It is the period during which extraordinary measures have to be taken. Special emergency procedures and authorities may be applied to support human needs, sustain livelihoods and protect property to avoid the onset of disasters. This phase can encompass pre-disaster, disaster alert, disaster relief and recovery periods. An emergency phase may be quite extensive, as in slow onset disaster such as famine. It can also be relatively short lived, as after an earthquake.  Rehabilitation phase. It is the phase where action is taken after a slow onset disaster where attention is given to the issues of resettlement or returnee programmes, particularly to people who have been displaced for reasons arising out of conflict or economic collapse. Risk Assessment and Disaster Management Assessment is the process of determining the impact of a disaster on a society. The first priority is to establish the needs for immediate emergency measures to save and sustain the lives of survivors. The second priority is to identify the possibilities for facilitating and expediting recovery and development. Assessment is an interdisciplinary process undertaken in phases and involving on the spot surveys and the collation, evaluation and interpretation of information from various sources. The surveys concern both direct and indirect losses as well as the short/long term effects. Assessment involves determining not only what has happened and what assistance might be needed, but also defines objectives and how relevant assistance can actually be provided to the victims. Some assessments are specifically conducted as damage assessments. They include the preparation of specific, quantified estimates of physical damage resulting from a disaster. The damage assessment may also include recommendations concerning the repair, reconstruction or replacement of structures, and equipment, as well as the restoration of economic activities. Objectives of Assessment The first step of a post – disaster assessment is to determine when an emergency exists. Next, it is pertinent to define the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate threats to health and safety and to pre-empt future serious problems. A frequent problem of assessment is to assume that all property losses or survival needs must be replaced or furnished from outside sources only. Instead the assessment must also identify the local response capacity, including organizational, medical and logistical resources. The assessment must help decide how best to use existing resources for relief. It must also identify the priorities of the affected people themselves. Another problem is that people making the assessment who are not from the disaster area may have a difficult time distinguishing chronic needs from problems created by the disaster. Knowledge of base line data is essential to identify the “ starting point” for post – disaster needs.
  • 6.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa If theresults of the assessment are to contribute to the design of a disaster response program, then the response agency must know the policies of the government with regard to emergency assistance. These policies will affect the estimate for the additional support required from national and international sources for relief. Evolving Objectives of Assessment Warning phase  Determine extent to which affected populations are taking measures to protect lives and facilities from expected hazard impact  Activate arrangements in the preparedness plan regarding the implementation of assessment. Emergency phase  Confirm the reported emergency and estimate the overall magnitude of the damage  Identify, characterize and quantify “populations at risk” in the disaster.  Help to define and prioritize the actions and resources needed to reduce immediate risks.  Identify local response capacity, including organizational, medical and logistic resources  Help anticipate future serious problems  Help manage and control the immediate response Rehabilitation phase  Identify the priorities of the affected people  Identify the policies of the government with regard to post – disaster assistance  Estimate the additional support required from national and international sources for relief and recovery  Monitor the outcome and effectiveness of continuing relief and rehabilitation measures Recovery phase  Determine the damage to economically significant resources and its implications for development policy  Assess the impact of the disaster on current development programs  Identify new development opportunities created by the disaster
  • 7.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa The AssessmentProcess Assessment must be carefully planned and managed. A sequence of activities is involved and each must be planned in detail. The following activities typically constitute the assessment process:  Identify information needs and sources of reliable data  Collect data  Analyze and interpret data  Report conclusions, forecasts and alternatives to appropriate planner and decision makers As the response actions begin to influence events, assessments become part of the monitoring and control loop, allowing those involved in monitoring outcomes and attempting to correct the response. It becomes part of a continuing process of assessment, review, and correction by which those managing the operation begin to restore the framework for survival and recovery. Assessment for Different Disaster Types The design and execution of assessments are very different for sudden onset disasters versus the slow onset. For sudden onset, there are typically many different needs in many locations involving casualty management, support for local rescue efforts and recovery of lifeline services during the first two days of an emergency. Initially the needs change from hour to hour often resulting in confusion. In fact, some activities need to be done so quickly that action has to precede detailed assessments, using strategies determined during preparedness planning on the basis of emergencies. For displaced persons and famine emergencies the lead times are sometimes long and donors may be unwilling to commit large amounts of assistance in response to ambiguous information. The initial priority needs, which should be assessed, include immunizations, emergency water supply, nutritional monitoring, bulk food logistics and registration systems. Early geographical assessments of the size of the populations at risk are vital. These prolonged emergencies may last for months, and often for years. This allows for detailed analysis of the assessment system’s performance and the opportunity to adapt them as requirements change. Assessment Data and its Use Assessment provides support for emergency decision makers. Assessment is conducted for a specific user or group of users who are making decisions about emergency resource allocation and response strategies in what may be a fast changing environment. There are three aspects involved in the assessment process: picture building; situation assessment and response planning. Usually we start by building up a picture of where people are, what condition they are in, what services are still available, and what resources have survived. The situation assessment involves the identification of operational priorities. The situation itself is usually fast changing and disorganized, this leads to the need to be able to
  • 8.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa forecast howthe situation is likely to develop. The assessment data needs to be structured to help with the following:  Recognition and assessment of situations requiring decisions  Formation of the operational strategies  Objectives and needs  Potential alternatives generated  Analysis of the alternatives: evaluate their impact  Interpretation and selection: compared by evaluating impacts The last process of decision-making is the response planning. This includes the detailed assignment and scheduling of resources (people, equipment, and supplies) to meet specific relief objectives. To view things in the right perspective, in order to be able to formulate a workable response and preparedness solution, it is essential to have an OVERVIEW of the types of disasters that strikes the country frequently. Some of the most commonly occurring disasters are as follows:-  Earthquakes  Floods  Hazardous Materials Accidents  Tropical Cyclones  Drought  Civil Disturbance  Terrorist Attacks As is evident, assessment whether pre, during or post disaster, is a time consuming and an arduous task requiring a vast investment in terms of time, money and manpower (not necessarily in that order). The field of disaster management and mitigation is yet to receive the importance it deserves in India. The matter further gets complicated, as the people involved in the process of assessment and preparedness plans do not necessarily happen to belong to the same place. It is imperative to involve the local community during the assessment phase before measures and plans to counter disasters are formulated. Later in the book we shall see how a community can organise itself to be prepared to deal with some of the frequently occurring disasters that the community may be vulnerable to, by utlising local resources and manpower.
  • 9.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 2 Overviewof frequently Occurring Disasters Earthquakes Earthquakes are a shaking or trembling of the earth, caused by underground volcanic forces or by breaking and shifting of rock beneath the surface. It may seem something of a revelation that the plates of the earth’s crust are in slow but constant motion and innumerable earthquakes are registered around the world on seismographs everyday. These tremors are generally very small in intensity to cause any harm / damage. However when the magnitude is more than 6.0 on the Richter scale, it is both noticeable and devastating wherein they assume apocalyptic proportions hitting densely populated areas on account of the suddenness of their shock and their mass destructive potential. Earthquake Hazards in India Earthquakes continue to be one of nature’s most devastating furies known to mankind since time immemorial. India has a very long history of earthquake occurrences. About 50 per cent of the total area is vulnerable to seismic damage of buildings in varying degrees. The most vulnerable areas according to the present seismic zone map of India are in Himalayan and Sub Himalayan regions, Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Depending on varying degrees of seismicity, the entire country can be divided into the following seismic regions:  Kashmir and Western Himalayas - This region covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and sub- mountainous regions of Punjab.  Central Himalayas – This region includes the mountain and sub- mountain regions of UP and the sub-mountainous parts of Punjab.  North- East India – This region comprises the whole of Indian Territory to the East of North Bengal.  Indo-Gangetic Basin and Rajasthan- This region comprises of Rajasthan, plains of Punjab, Haryana, UP and Bengal.  Cambay and Rann of Kutch.  Peninsular India including the islands of Lakshadweep.  The Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Causal Phenomenon Slippage of crystal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to new alignment.
  • 10.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Impact The impactof earthquakes can be best explained with a help of a flow chart:- Figure 2.1. Direct and Chain Effects of Earthquake EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS On Ground  Fissures  Settlement  Land Slides  Liquefaction  Earth Pressures On Man Made Structures  Cracking  Sliding  Over Turning  Collapse On Water  Waves  Hydrodynamic pressure  Isunamics (Sea Waves) POSSIBLE CHAIN EFFECTS LAND SLIDES DAM FAILURE ISUNAMIC ATOMIC POWER PLANT FAILURE FIRE Destruction of settlements Temp. Dam across river and its failure Flood Flow Destruction of Structures Flooding of Land Water Contamination Devastation by high waves Radiation Hazard Fire
  • 11.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Factors Contributingto Vulnerability Principally, the location of settlements in seismic areas. Other contributory factors include:-  Structures which are not resistant to ground motion.  Dense collection of building with high occupancy.  Lack of access to information about earthquake risks. Earthquake Classifications Earthquakes are classified as small, moderate, major, or great based on the Richter scale (a measure of energy released during the quake). The Richter scale has a logarithmic base, so each increment on the scale is multiplied by a factor that is 10 times larger than the previous factor. (For example, an earthquake of magnitude 8.6 would not be twice as violent as one of 4.3, but rather would be 10,000 times worse.) Although there are other methods of determining earthquake intensity and magnitude, the Richter scale is the most widely used method today. Earthquake classifications based on Richter scale magnitudes are shown in the table below. Classifications Richter Scale Magnitudes Small 5.0-5.9 Moderate 6.0-6.9 Major 7.0-7.9 Great 8.0-8.9 Table 2.2. Earthquake Classifications Typical Adverse Affects The typical adverse affects due to earthquake are:-  Physical damage. Damage or loss of structure and infrastructure. Fires, dam failures, landslides, flooding etc may occur.  Casualties. Often high, particularly near epicenter or in highly populated areas or where buildings are not built to resist earthquake.  Public health. Fracture injuries are the most widespread problem. Secondary threats due to flooding, contaminated water supply or break down in sanitary conditions are common causes for concern.  Water supply. Severe problems are most likely due to damage of water system, pollution of open wells and changes in water table.
  • 12.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Possible RiskReduction Measures The adverse affects can to a large extent be mitigated through a series of strategic thinking and planning, such as :-  Hazard mapping  Public awareness programmes and training  Assessing and reducing structural vulnerability.  Land use controlling or zoning, building codes. Specific Preparedness Measures Specific preparedness measures to reduce the overall impact due to earthquake can be achieved through earthquake warning and preparedness programmes. Typical Post Disaster Needs The typical post disaster needs of the afflicted population and place would generally encompass the following:-  Search and Rescue efforts  Emergency medical assistance  Damage needs and assessment surveys  Relief assistance  Repair and reconstruction  Economic recovery Earthquake Prediction The probability of occurrence can be determined but not the exact timing. Forecasting is based on monitoring of seismic activity, historical incidence and observations. Although it is still impossible to predict earthquakes accurately, scientists have been able to derive some probabilities about future earthquakes in India. Some of the most vulnerable areas are depicted in the map shown in Map 2.3.
  • 13.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Map 2.3.Earthquake Hazard Zones Of India
  • 14.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Floods A floodoccurs any time a body of water rises to cover what is usually dry land. Floods have many causes, including heavy rain, spring snowmelt, hurricanes and coastal storms and dam or levee failure. When flooding occurs, affected areas may sustain damage to structures and personal property, as well as severe damage to the environment in the form of soil erosion and deforestation and damage to utilities and transportation systems. Flash floods, for which there is little or no warning, cause great risk to humans and animals. Land along rivers and streams, lakeshores and coastlines are particularly susceptible to flooding. Under some conditions, however, even inland that are not normally threatened by flooding, may also be immersed. Floods :Indian Context The country receives an annual precipitation of 400 million – hectare meters. Of the annual rainfall, 75% is received during four months of monsoon (June – September) and as a result, almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this period. The flood hazard is compounded by the problems of sediment deposition, drainage congestion and synchronization of river floods with sea tides in the coastal plains. The area vulnerable to floods is 40 million - hectare and the average area affected by floods annually are about 8 million hectares. The average annual total damage to crops, houses and public utilities during the period 1953 –1995 was about Rs.9720 million. Causes of floods Flooding conditions may occur due to:  Rivers in spate  Snowmelt  Storm surges  Short intense storms causing flash floods Flooding in rivers is mainly caused by :  Inadequate capacity within the banks of the river to contain high flows  River bank erosion and silting of riverbeds  Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course  Synchronization of flood in the main and tributary rivers  Flow retardation due to tidal and backwater effects  Poor natural drainage  Cyclone and heavy rainfall
  • 15.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Flood ProneAreas in India: Figure 2.4. Flood Disaster Management in India: The various measures adopted for flood mitigation may be categorized into two groups:  Structural  Non- structural The general approach is aimed at preventing floodwaters from reaching the potential damage centres, as a result of which a large number of embankments have come up along the various flood prone rivers. The main thrust of the flood protection program undertaken in the country so far in the form of structural measures may be grouped into the following:  Dams and Reservoirs  Embankments, flood walls, sea wall  Natural detention basin  Channel improvement  Diversion of floodwaters For effective functioning of all the physical measures taken, it is necessary that pre- and post- monsoon checks must be made and special repairs must be carried out prior to flood period. The non-structural measures, on the other hand, aim at modifying the susceptibility to flood damage as well as modifying the loss burden. The various non- structural measures being implemented in the country are:
  • 16.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa 1. Modifyingthe susceptibility to flood damages through:  Flood plain management  Flood proofing including disaster preparedness and response planning  Flood forecasting and Warning 2. Modifying the flood loss burden through:  Disaster Relief  Flood fighting including Public Health Measures and Public education, (one of the aims this book) General Characteristics The general characteristics associated with floods are:-  Flash Floods. Accelerated runoff, dam failure, breakup of ice jam  River Floods. Slow buildup, usually seasonal in river systems  Coastal Floods. Associated with tropical cyclones, tsunami waves, storm surges. Factors affecting degree of danger usually are: depth of water, duration, velocity, rate of rise, frequency of occurrence and seasonality. Flood Classifications Floods are measured according to the heights the waters reach. Their magnitude is based on the chances that water flow will equal or exceed a certain level on a recurring basis. Flood Prediction Satellite technology combined with river forecast centers and hydrologic service enable meteorologists to predict flood occurrence and severity with reasonable accuracy and provide warnings to those in high-risk areas. On average, rivers overflow their normal boundaries once every 2 years. Severe coastal flooding, however, can result in conjunction with any hurricane or coastal storm, the track of which cannot be predicted with complete accuracy. Clearly, the risk of damage or injury resulting from floods cannot be downplayed. Setting up of flood forecasting and warning services is one of the most cost- effective non- structural measures available. The flood forecasting organization set up in Central Water Commission is presently responsible for issuing forecasts at 157 stations, of which 132 are for water stage forecast and 25 for inflow forecast used for optimum operation of certain major reservoirs. These 157 stations are located in the 11 flood prone states and 2 Union Territories.
  • 17.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Flood forecastingmethods are being constantly reviewed and further improvements are being made with assistance from UNDP, USAID, Denmark, etc, so as to make flood forecast more reliable and timely. The Ministry of Water Resources is reviewing flood- forecasting methods also. Modernization involves installing automatic data collection system by means of sensors, transmission of data by latest techniques of communication and formulation of forecasts using computer based comprehensive models. The final forecasts are communicated to the concerned administrative and engineering authorities of the State and other agencies connected with flood protection and management work, on telephone or by special messenger / availability of communication facilities etc. Areas likely to be affected by floods are shown in map 2.5.
  • 18.
  • 19.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Tropical Cyclones TheWorld Meteorological Organisation defines the term ‘Tropical Cyclone’ as weather systems in which wind speeds exceed ‘gale force’ (min 34 knots or 63 kmph) tropical cyclones owe their genesis to the ocean and atmosphere, powered by the heat from the sea, driven by the easterly trades and the westerly temperates, the high planetary winds and their own fierce energy. As a result of this lethal cocktail, the ocean develops a devastating and mammoth surge, thereby inundating vast coastal areas. Tropical cyclones announce their arrival through devastatingly violent winds, torrential rainfall accompanied by storm surges leading to floods and thereby contributing to large-scale devastation and disruption to normal life. Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones The characteristics of Tropical cyclones are:-  Destructive winds  Storm surges  Exceptionally high rainfall occurrences Stages of Tropical Cyclones The various stages associated with Tropical Cyclones are;-  Formation and initial development stage  Mature stage  Modification or decaying stage Causal Phenomenon The causal phenomenon associated with floods are:-  Mixture of heat and moisture forms a low-pressure center over oceans in tropical latitudes where water temperatures are over 26 degrees c.  Wind currents spin and organise around deepening low pressure over accelerating toward the center and moving along track pushed by trade winds.  Depression becomes a tropical cyclone when winds reach gale force or 117km per hour  A warm sea temperature  High relative humidity  Atmospheric instability  A location of at least 4 – 5 Latitude degree from the equator
  • 20.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Classification ofCyclonic Disturbances The classification of Cyclonic disturbances (low pressure areas) is made by the strength of the associated winds. The classification used in India is given in the following table: Ser No Disturbance Wind Speed (Knots) 1. Low >17 2. Depression 17 – 27 (32 – 50 Kmph) 3. Deep Depression 28 – 33 (51 – 62 Kmph) 4. Cyclonic Storm 34 – 47 (63 – 88 Kmph) 5. Severe Cyclonic storm with a core of Hurricane winds 48 – 63 (89 – 118 Kmph) Table 2.6.Classification of Cyclonic disturbances General Characteristics When the cyclone strikes land, high winds, exceptional rainfall and storm surges cause damage with secondary flooding and landslides. Predictability Tropical cyclones can be tracked from their development but accurate landfall forecasts are usually possible only a few hours before as unpredictable changes in course can occur. Factors Contributing to Vulnerability The factors contributing to the vulnerability of the settlements/community are:-  Settlements located in low lying coastal areas (direct impact)  Settlements in adjacent areas (heavy rains, floods)  Poor communications or warming systems  Lightweight structures, older construction, poor quality masonry  Infrastructural elements, fishing boats and maritime industries. Typical Adverse Effects The adverse affects associated with floods are:-
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Physicaldamagestructures lost and damaged by wind force, flooding, surge and landslides.  Casualties and public health May be caused by flying debris, or flooding  Contamination of water supplies May lead to viral outbreaks and malaria.  Water supplies Ground water may be contaminated by floodwaters.  Crops and food supplies High winds and rains can ruin standing crops, tree plantations and food stocks.  Communications and logistics Severe disruption is possible as wind brings down telephone lines, antennas and satellite disks. Transport may be curtailed. Possible Risk Reduction Measures The possible risk reduction measures are:-  Risk assessment and hazard mapping  Land use control and flood plain management  Reduction of structural vulnerability  Improvement of vegetation cover. Specific Preparedness Measures The specific preparedness measures could include the following:-  Public warning systems  Evacuation plans  Training and community participation Typical Post Disaster Needs The post disaster needs could include evacuation and emergency shelter; search and rescue; medical assistance; water purification; reestablish logistical and communication networks; disaster assessment; provision of seeds for planting. Impact Assessment Tools The common impact assessment tools used to assess damage due to floods are damage assessment forms and aerial surveys.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Cyclonic Predictionand Warning Centers  Satellite pictures  Weather/meteorological observatories at sea  Ships at sea ….. in INDIA  Area cyclone warning centre (ACWC’s) at Kolkatta, Chennai and Mumbai  Cyclone warning Centres (CWC’s) at Bhuvaneshwar, Visakapatnam and Ahmedabad. Areas likely to be affected during a Tropical Cyclone are depicted in map 2.7.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Map 2.7.Winds and Cyclone Hazard Map Of India
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Drought It isa temporary reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the normal or expected amount for a specific period. This condition occurs either due to inadequacy of rainfall, or lack of irrigation facilities, under – exploitation or deficient availability for meeting the normal crop requirement in the context of the agro – climatic conditions prevailing in any particular area. In other words, drought can also be defined as adverse moisture index (MI), or adverse water balance which may be attributable not only to prolonged dry spell due to lack of sufficient rainfall but also due to such other factors as excessive Evapo-transpiration losses, high temperature, low – soil holding capacity etc. Droughts in India The rainfall distribution pattern of India is generally uneven ranging from 10,000mm at Cherapunji in the Northeast to around 200-350mm in parts of western Rajasthan and Gujarat. However when computing the annual rainfall, it is observed that India receives a healthy 1200mm,which is very good for a country of this size. The rainfall distribution pattern of India is as under:-  33% Low Rainfall Region 750mm  35% Medium Rainfall Region 751-1125mm  24% High Rainfall Region 1125-2000mm  8% Very High Rainfall Region >2000mm Due to the erratic behaviour of the rainfall and its uneven distribution throughout the country, an average of 68% or roughly 2/3 of the country’s arable land area is susceptible to drought. Administration authorities in states such as Bihar constantly find themselves in paradoxical situations wherein a single district at times face both floods as well as drought in a single season, simultaneously. This is largely due to the absence of a well-developed network of irrigation system that could channelise the excess water that flows into the region and utilize it in areas under the ‘Rain Shadow’ region. Types of Droughts Droughts could be classified as under:  Agriculture drought, wherein the impact of drought on human activity is influenced by a host of factors, such as the degree of advancement in the agriculture technology and its availability e.g. an irrigation system, quality and retention capacity of the soil, timing of the seasonal rainfall and the adaptive capacity and behaviour of the farmer  Meteorological drought, caused due to reduction in rainfall  Hydrological drought, caused due to reduction in water resources
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Drought Prediction Carefulanalysis of rainfall and hydrological data analyzed with influencing factors go a long way in predicting droughts. With the advancement in modern satellite based technology such as the GIS (Geographical Information System), droughts can be predicted with greater accuracy and the region likely to be affected can be fore warned. A ‘weather watch group’ is constituted in the Ministry of Agriculture, which meets every week to take stock of the rainfall progress, its effects on the crops from sowing to harvesting, during Khariff season. Weekly inputs from the Indian Meteorological Department gives an early warning about the impending drought as and when symptoms arise in this regard and the states are warned accordingly. The National Agricultural Drought Assessment and Management System (NADAMS) is being developed by the Department of Space for the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation and is primarily based on the monitoring of vegetation status through National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Advanced Very High Resolution (AVHR) data. The drought assessment is based on comparative evaluation of satellite observed green vegetation cover (both area and greenness) of district in any specific time period. Causal Phenomena The causative factors for drought could be the following:  Immediate cause. Rainfall deficit  Possible underlying causes. o Anthropogenic Factors leading to changes in ground surface and soil o El Nino, a phenomenon wherein there is an incursion of warm surface waters into the normally colder waters esp. seen off the South American Coast, although this kind of phenomenon has been known to occur in India too o Higher temperatures on sea surfaces o Increase of Carbon dioxide gases in the atmosphere Possible Risk Reduction Measures The possible risk reduction measures are drought and famine early warning systems General Characteristics The general characteristics associated with droughts are:-
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Thereduction of water or moisture availability is temporary and significant in relation to the norm.  Meteorological drought is the reduction in rainfall and hydrological drought is the reduction in water resources.  Agricultural drought is the impact of drought on human activity influenced by various factors: the presence of irrigation systems, moisture retention capacity of the soil, the timing of the rainfall and adaptive behaviour of the farmers. Predictability Periods of unusual dryness are normal in all weather systems. Rainfall and hydrology data must be carefully analyzed with influencing factors in predicting drought, however, advance warning is usually possible. Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Factors contributing to vulnerability are: -  Location in an arid area where dry conditions are increased by drought  Farming on marginal lands, subsistence farming  Lack of agricultural inputs to improve yields  Lack of seed reserves  Areas dependent on other weather systems for water resources  Areas of low soil moisture retention  Lack of recognition and allocation of resources to drought hazard Typical Adverse and Immediate Effects The immediate typical immediate and adverse affects include:-  Rainfall deficit leading to large scale Crop failure.  Reduced income for farmer; reduction of spending from agricultural sector; increase in price of staple foods, increased inflation rates, deterioration of nutritional status, famine, illness, death, reduction of drinking water resources, migration, breakup of communities, loss of livestock. Specific Preparedness Measures Development of inter- institutional response plan is one of the important steps towards a specific preparedness plan.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Typical PostDisaster Needs The typical post disaster needs associated with the drought affected are measures to maintain food security; price stabilization, food subsidies, employment creation programs, general food distribution, supplementary feeding programs, special programs for livestock and pastoralists, complementary water and health programs. Impact Assessment Tools The impact assessment tools used to measure the disaster are nutritional surveys, socio- economic surveys, monitoring of rainfall and hydrological data, satellite imagery. Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Disaster Dangerous Goods/chemicals are any product that corrodes other materials, explodes or is easily ignited, reacts strongly with water, is unstable when exposed to heat or shock, or is otherwise toxic to humans, animals, or the environment. In India, The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989 governs the safe handling, transport and disposal of dangerous goods/chemicals. While this may be so, accidents can and do occur throughout the country on a regular basis. Additionally, while the risk of exposure to radioactive materials in nuclear power facilities, mining operations and storage facilities is strictly regulated, it remains possible for a radioactive materials incident to occur. Causal Phenomenon The causal phenomenon associated with a chemical disaster are:-  Disaster/explosion in a plant or storage facilities handling toxic substances.  Accidents during the transportation of chemicals.  Contamination of food or the environment by misuse of chemicals.  Improper waste management of toxic chemicals.  Technological system failures.  Failures of plant safety design or components.  Natural hazards such as fire, earthquake or landslides.  Arson or sabotage. Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Factors contributing to the vulnerability of a community due to a chemical disaster are:-
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Persons,structures, livestock, crops and environment closest to the scene of an accident are most vulnerable, however, large-scale releases of airborne pollutants may spread for hundreds of kilometers.  Lack of safety features or lack of evacuation plan.  Unawareness by vulnerable persons of the potential danger. Typical Adverse Effects The typical adverse affects associated with a chemical disaster are:-  Physical damage. Damage or destruction may occur to structures and infrastructure. Transportation accidents damage vehicles and other objects on impact. Industrial fires may reach high temperatures and affect large areas.  Casualties. Many people may be killed or injured and require medical treatment.  Environmental. Contamination of air, water supply, land and animal life may occur. Areas may become un-inhabitable for humans and animals. Ecological systems may be disrupted even on a global scale. Possible Risk Reduction Measures Development of a plan, such as the ALERT (Amateur Local Emergency Relief Teams) local level, to assist decision makers and technical personnel to improve community awareness of hazardous installations and aid them in preparing disaster response plans. Specific Preparedness Measures  Hazard mapping  Hazardous materials identification  Inspection of chemical plants and storage facilities  Monitoring toxic waste disposal procedures  Improve fire fighting capacity  Monitoring pollution levels  Prepare and practice evacuation plans  Test warning sirens Typical Post Disaster Needs Evacuation from area; search and rescue; alternative resources of water; cleanup; monitor environmental effects. Impact assessment tools APELL (Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level) process forms for emergency response plan evaluation, CHEMTREC (Chemical Transportation
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Emergency Center)information systems. These tools have to be devised by the local authorities in conjunction with the various associated departments. Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Classifications Dangerous Goods/Chemicals are not classified in the same way as natural hazards. Also, Dangerous Goods/Chemicals are classified differently depending on whether they are being stored or transported. Rules of 1989 have provided a list of 434 chemicals, which have been declared as hazardous and toxic chemicals. Dangerous Goods/Chemicals Accident Prediction While there is no way to predict dangerous goods/chemical disasters, certain areas are at some degree of risk, including those located near national highways, manufacturing, storage or disposal facilities and nuclear power facilities. Prevention, rather than prediction of disasters, is central to avoiding potential damage, loss, or other contamination from hazardous materials. Also, planners while designing and establishing a new chemical/hazardous materials industry should cater for possible risks through ‘Fault Tree Analysis’.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 3 Terrorismand Communal Riots Terrorism Of late a new category of disaster has been added into the already long list of disasters plaguing India, namely, Terrorism. Terrorism can be defined as “ the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.” --FBI Definition Terrorism remains one of the deadliest and most persistent threats to Indian security. Although it can be argued that India once again holds the unique distinction of having a variety of Flavours of Terrorism in the form of Militancy, Insurgency and Separatism. However, for ease of understanding and better assimilation, only the subject of Terrorism will be discussed as the character and modus operandi of the other three are almost similar in nature to that of Terrorism. The motives, perpetrators and methods of operation of terrorist groups in India and the world over are evolving in ways that complicate analysis, collection of data of their activities and to devise means of counter-Terrorist action. The rise of the new breed of terrorist who is interested in inflicting mass death and destruction does not bode well for the future security of Indian interests. These groups can strike at any time, anywhere, spurred by seemingly unrelated events for which they judge innocent citizens to be blameworthy. They have a widening global reach and a high degree of proficiency with more sophisticated weapons and tactics. Categories of Terrorism There are two categories of terrorism:  Domestic  International. Domestic terrorism involves groups or individuals whose activities, conducted with or without foreign influence, are directed at elements of the Indian Government or population. International terrorism involves activity committed by foreign-based groups or individuals who are either directed by countries or groups outside India or whose activities transcend national boundaries.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Terrorist groupsgenerally are non-state-supported (either indigenous or transnational), state-supported, or state-directed. Non-state supported terrorist groups are autonomous and receive no significant support from a government. State-supported groups generally operate independently but receive support from one or more governments. Such support may include weapons, training, money, intelligence, or safe havens. State-directed terrorist organizations act as agents of a government. Such groups receive intelligence, logistics and operational support from the sponsoring government, frequently through diplomatic missions. State-directed terrorism is potentially a deniable and/or relatively inexpensive method of carrying out attacks against an enemy state or its interests, such as the ‘Low Intensity Conflict’ being waged in Jammu and Kashmir and the North – Eastern states of India by our neighbouring countries (to our immediate east and west). Terrorist Groups Operating in India The greatest terrorist threat to India today comes from fundamentalist Islamic extremist groups and to a lesser extent from the various militant factions operating in the North East. Some of these groups, such as the Pakistani based Lashkar e Taiba, Hizbul Mujahhidin, Harkat ul Ansar etc. in Jammu & Kashmir, National Socialist Council of Nagaland(IM)[NSCN (IM)],United Liberation Front of Asom(ULFA) etc. in the North East fit the traditional terrorist mould. These groups have hierarchical structures and receive support from state sponsors. A new Islamic threat is on the rise as a result of the activities of ad hoc terrorist groups in the Southern parts of the country. These groups are even more dangerous in many ways than the traditional groups because they lack a well- established organizational identity and they tend to decentralize and compartmentalize their activities. They are capable of producing sophisticated conventional weapons, as well as chemical and biological agents. They are also less constrained by state sponsors or other benefactors than more traditional terrorist organizations. These new groups seek to punish India by inflicting heavy civilian casualties. Some groups such as the Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) are actively engaged in such activities. The recent bombings of Railway stations, Churches, temples and other places with large concentration of population in Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are a case in point. Both the traditional groups and the newer, ad hoc groups have increased their capability to attack Indian interests. The groups are well funded and some have developed sophisticated international support networks that provide them great freedom of movement and increase their opportunities to attack Indian interests on a global basis. These groups are also attracting more qualified cadres with greater technical skills. Several groups have established supporting infrastructures within India and abroad, such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, the United States and Britain that provide financial, logistics, operational and intelligence support. Although, there is no evidence that these groups are centrally coordinated, it does appear that they collaborate in terrorist actions. Evidence gathered by various Indian and International intelligence agencies, shows that leaders or representatives of different Islamic fundamentalist groups were funded by Pakistan and
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa various PersianGulf donors to perpetuate acts of violence on innocent civilians in India. Tactics used by Terrorists Terrorists generally adopt by default six basic types of tactics, namely: hijackings, kidnappings, bombings, assassinations, armed assaults and barricade-hostage incidents. A group's objectives and organizational capabilities dictate which tactics it uses. Terrorist organizations typically use hijackings, kidnapping and barricade-hostage incidents when the group wishes to force the targeted party or government into negotiations. The terrorist group frequently is able to obtain the release of prisoners or extort money. Such incidents increase the level of risk to the terrorist organization and require a mature planning, operations, logistics and intelligence capability to successfully conduct the operation. On the other hand, bombings, assassinations and armed assaults are less risky and generally require less organizational capabilities. These tactics tend to be used to accomplish the following goals: 1. Create a climate of fear in a targeted group or nation through a sustained campaign of violence 2. Retaliate for previous incidents or situations affecting the terrorist organization or its causes 3. Negatively affect processes that the terrorist organization sees as against its interests 4. Eliminate specific individuals or groups Attaining the terrorist organization's goals depends on receiving adequate information for planning and executing an operation. Terrorist Goals Terrorist groups intend their terrorist activities to have an emotional impact on the target audience, causing it to act in a manner that furthers the group's objectives and goals. Terrorist operations generally are categorized in terms of their associated goals. These goals traditionally can be divided into five distinct phases:  Recognition phase  Coercion phase  Intimidation phase  Provocation phase  Insurgency support phase Early in their life span, terrorist groups often carry out attacks designed to gain recognition. The objective of these attacks is national and/or international attention for the group and its stated goals or objectives. Groups often mount such attacks, which may involve protracted hostage seizures, hijacking etc against highly visible symbols of state control (e.g., national airlines). Groups intend coercion attacks to force individuals,
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa organizations, orgovernments to act in a desired manner. Using this strategy, terrorists selectively target facilities with the intent of bringing increasing pressure to bear on the targeted activity. Terrorist attacks designed primarily to intimidate are a means of preventing organizations or governments from acting in a defined manner. Provocation attacks aim to force government security forces to take repressive action against the general populace. These attacks generally are against critical infrastructures, popular or high profile individuals, or important facilities. The goal of these attacks is to demonstrate the weakness of the legitimate government, thus causing an uncoordinated backlash. If the security forces/government succumbs to the provocative trap laid down by the Terrorists in the Provocation phase (which generally is the case), then the victimized population will ease into the Insurgency Support phase as they now start to sympathise with the Terrorists. Terrorism Trends: World in general, India in particular In addition to Terrorists becoming more violent, terrorist groups also have expanded the range of targets that they consider legitimate. Brian Jenkins, formerly the director of the Rand Corporation's Program on Subnational Conflict, has postulated three reasons for this trend:  First, as generational replacement has occurred in terrorist organizations, new leaders have become less concerned with ideological constraints and adverse public opinion. As a result, they are more willing to use excessively violent or shocking tactics.  Second, leaders desire to maintain media attention. Limited acts of terrorism repeated over time have failed to gain desired media attention. To receive attention, terrorists have escalated the level of violence and have used bolder, more shocking tactics designed to force the media and the public to pay attention to the terrorist group and its demands.  Finally, the internal dynamics of terrorist groups require that the organization move inexorably toward its goals. Increasingly violent tactics allow group members to perceive that they are increasingly powerful and are likely to achieve their objectives. Data gathered from 1968 to 1990 substantiates the trend that the number of terrorist groups is increasing and that groups are also more violent. In 1990, there were 70 active terrorist groups throughout the world, compared to 11 identifiable groups in 1968. Although the number of terrorist incidents identified in the 1980s increased by only one-third over those identified in the 1970s, the level of violence increased dramatically. In the 1980s, the number of deaths worldwide attributed to terrorism doubled. There was a 75 percent increase in the number of terrorist incidents resulting in fatalities, a 115 percent increase in incidents resulting in 5 or more deaths and a 135 percent increase in incidents resulting in 10 or more deaths. Pinkerton Risk Assessment Services, an organization that tracks terrorist incidents, recorded an unprecedented 5,404 terrorist incidents in 1992, resulting in over 10,000 deaths. These incidents represent an 11
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa percent increaseover 1991 figures. Part of this pattern is attributable to the growth of religious terrorism. Religious terrorists differ from traditional ideological terrorists in that the former are willing to sacrifice to obtain their objective. Consequently, religious terrorists are more likely to use indiscriminate violence. They see themselves as involved in a total war in which there are no innocent parties. In determining operational matters, religious terrorists also are largely unconcerned with public opinion. Some terrorist groups are evolving into new organizational structures that are harder to detect and infiltrate. These terrorist groups are often a collection of factions with common interests. Accordingly, the groups form, change and regroup in response to specific agendas or planned actions. The groups tend to be religious or ethnic organizations that often have major grievances with the government of India. The extremist factions of Islamic fundamentalist groups that are currently emerging fit this pattern. While many are funded by Pakistan or supported by some Arab countries, some emerging groups are not controlled or directed by these states. Instead, they tend to be autonomous in their planning and decision-making functions. There may be dozens of such groups in India waiting for the opportunity to strike. The large numbers of these groups as well as their lack of central direction and changing organizational structures, make them very difficult to crack. Finally, a trend may be developing regarding a sponsoring state's use of terrorists to conduct a proxy war against India. Terrorist groups offer the sponsoring state a deniable method to attack primary Indian interests. In turn, sponsoring states would provide terrorist groups with funding, access to weapons and advanced technologies, intelligence, target planning support, logistics support and secure communications. In times of crisis or conflict, the use of terrorists as proxies is the aspect of terrorism that appears to be the most dangerous to Indian interests because attacks could be directed at facilities critical to force mobilization or crisis management for e.g. the serial Bombay Bomb blasts in 1991. Prediction of Terrorist Attacks To succeed, terrorist operations require detailed information for planning and executing an attack. Many of these organizations have access to intelligence produced by sponsor states or have the ability to produce intelligence required for an attack. Proactive intelligence operations by security forces can be used to deny adversaries information on the movements of key personnel, or the identity and vulnerabilities of critical facilities. Improved methods of intelligence collection can assist security agencies in determining the best security approach to be adopted to protect against terrorist attacks based upon assessed risk levels. An efficient intelligence network, combining the country’s intelligence agencies, to ensure that information is gathered and exchanged at the earliest, will ensure that terrorists are denied the critical information required to plan an attack and will also aid in the implementation of security countermeasures that are commensurate with the assessed level of risk.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Communal Riots Indiain the past has been a victim to countless instances of communal riots. During such incidents, one of the most troubling aspects is the level of violence. While all riots tend to be destructive, extremely high levels of violence mark communal riots, often resulting in numerous deaths as well as maiming, looting and destruction of property owned by the ethnic group targeted by the rioters. However, in understanding the causes of communal riots, researchers have often tended to place too much emphasis on rioters using riot as a tool to seek redress for perceived socio-economic or political grievances. Instead, two main aspects better describe the dynamics governing the size, brutality and virulence of communal riots: (Horowitz)  "Lucid madness." Although communal riots often suddenly erupt into violence Horowitz pointed out, study has indicated that such riots are not unplanned. To the contrary, his research has shown that while riots may take on the tone of an "orgy of killing" they also include a high degree of rational planning - deadly mix of passion and calculation. Targets for violence are often carefully selected and rioters have even been found to plan traps for specific individuals or to devise strategies to maximize causalities and damage to the targeted ethnic group.  Emotion, insecurity and rumors. Building on his previous point, Horowitz argued that an insidious combination of anxiety and hatred were a significant motivator for many rioters. In particular, he noted that his research has discovered that rumors had frequently played a major role in motivating crowds. They were almost always framed in a way that the rioters saw their actions as a necessary preemptive action or strike against a plan or action by the rival ethnic group. Ironically, Horowitz explained, as these rumors were nearly always baseless, the actions of the rioters frequently created a self- fulfilling prophecy. The rioters overestimated the threat and took disproportionate action; thereby creating a threat where it didn't exist when the victimized ethnic group subsequently responded in the wake of the riot. Why do People Participate in Communal Riots? One question often nagging experts was to the trigger mechanism that was needed to goad perfectly rational people to embark on a wanton destructive spree. It has now been found that four main elements are needed to actively induce individuals to join in a communal riot:  A sense of reduced personal risk. Contrary to popular opinion, studies consistently show that rioters tend to be rational decision makers. Participants in communal riots use a rational decision-making process where they seek to maximize destruction while minimizing personal risk. Therefore, rioters seek to attack "strong targets at weak moments" when there is a reduced risk of
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa punishment bygovernment agencies or retaliation by the targeted ethnic group.  A sense of personal justification. Most rioters see themselves as "heroes" defending their ethnic group. People participating in communal riots often find it personally gratifying. Rioters not only see their cause as righteous, but as an act of defense (even if preemptively) against perceived imminent and grave threat.  An intense emotional response to a recent event. It has also been seen that not only in such cases did "aggression feel good," for the rioters but it often was also rooted in a negative response to recent events. This creates an opportunity for the rioters to not only see their actions as heroic, but also as an opportunity to correct a perceived social, economic, or political wrong against their own ethnic group. Thereby communal riots provide an opportunity for the release of built-up group or communal tensions and anger.  An inherently suspicious and hostile relationship with the other ethnic group. Research has indicated that rioters in general share hatred of the targeted ethnic group. This usually is manifested by an obsessive type of ethnic hatred where the rioters believe that all members of the targeted ethnic group think the same way on socio-economic and political issues and therefore felt a general sense of repulsion of the ethnic group as a whole. Examining Civil Society and Ethnic Riots In examining the relationships and social structures within multiethnic societies, it has been seen that the viability of intra and inter ethnic social networks has played an important role in how susceptible the society has been to lethal communal riots. More specifically, it has been indicated that societies without strong inter ethnic social structures were more prone to ethnic violence. Elaborating upon the importance of inter ethnic social structures in defusing ethnic tensions, it has been proved by researchers that both formal organized associations (such as professional associations or unions) and informal or neighbourhood-level associations (such as book or sports clubs) tend to be helpful. However, research has also found that more formal organized social structures appear to be able to better withstand ethnic tensions because these types of organization not only provide for stronger personal and professional bonds between individuals in different ethnic groups, but also provide for important informal channels of inter ethnic communication. (Varshney) Civil Society Structures – Tool to Combat Ethnic Violence To understand how civil society structures could be used effectively to help lessen ethnic violence, social scientists and researchers had examined the elements in multi ethnic societies that have been prone to violent ethnic violence and riots as well as those that have been able to weather such tensions largely peacefully. Yet although these researchers had clearly found a link between inter ethnic civil society structures and
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa lower incidencesof ethnic violence, it was observed with concern that civil society tools were frequently under utilized as a tool to combat ethnic tensions, whereas it can be argued that civil society reforms have already proven in several cases to be a valuable tool in defusing some of the underlying elements that serve to create an atmosphere where communal riots are likely to occur. For example, research of cities in India which have proven to be less riot prone indicates that the inter ethnic bonds and communication structures facilitated by organized professional associations have proven to be a valuable tool in stopping rumors before they reach critical mass within the community. Such social structures have also been shown to provide a vital unofficial channel of communication to leaders and opinion makers in both ethnic communities that can be used in crisis management. Research indicates that neighbourhood-level social structures can provide an important opportunity for everyday inter ethnic interaction that is helpful in combating perceptions by individuals that all members of a certain ethnic group think or felt the same way about controversial social, religious, economic, or political issues. In conclusion, it is emphasized that the type of civil society mechanisms described do not occur naturally in areas with very strict ethnic division lines, active facilitation is needed by the state or other actors. It is also stressed that while it is not possible to completely eliminate ethnic conflict, the proper application of such civil society tools can help reduce and manage ethnic violence in multi ethnic societies.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 4 Disasterand its Impact On Infrastructure Introduction When a disaster occurs, it has a cascading effect because of its impact on the infrastructure: transportation, utilities, communications systems, fuel supplies and water suppliesthe services and delivery systems on which we depend. When one of these important elements in our support system breaks down, it has a domino effect, causing other elements to falter. When multiple elements break down, the effect can be crippling. Some of the ways in which the infrastructure can be affected in a disaster or emergency are shown below. Service Effect Transportation Inability to get emergency service personnel into the affected area.Inability to transport victims away from the area. Electrical Increased risk of fire and electrical shock. Possible disruption to transportation system if downed lines are across roads. Telephone Lost contact between victims, service providers and family members. System overload due to calls from or to friends or relatives Water Disruption of service to homes, businesses and medical providers. Inadequate water supply for firefighting. Increased risk to public health if there is extensive damage to the water supply or if it becomes contaminated.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Fuel SuppliesIncreased risk of fire or explosion from ruptured fuel lines. Risk of asphyxiation from natural gas leaks in confined areas. Emergency Services Each instance of damage to the infrastructure may severely restrict the abilities of police, fire and paramedic/medical services to provide service following a disaster. Some types of damage and their effects on emergency services are shown in the table 9.1 below. Type Of Damage Effect On Emergency Services Road  Inability to assess damage accurately.  Ambulances prevented from reaching victims and/or victims prevented from reaching emergency medical services.  Police prevented from reaching areas of civil unrest.  Fire departments prevented from getting to fires.  Flow of needed supplies is interrupted. Structural  Damaged hospitals unable to receive patients.  Increased risk of damage from falling debris. Disrupted Communication  Victims unable to call for help.  Coordination of services is hampered. Fuel Line Damage  Fire and paramedic services overburdened. Disrupted Water Service  Firefighting capabilities restricted.  Medical facilities hampered. Table 4.1. Possible Effects Of Damage On Emergency Service Providers Service Priorities As emergency services are likely to have inadequate resources to meet the needs in a disaster situation, these resources must be applied according to highest priority need:  Police/Law Enforcement agencies: Establish order and safe ingress/egress to and from the disaster area.  Fire: Suppression of major fires.  Paramedic/Medical Service: Life-threatening injuries.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  DisasterRelief Workers: Assistance to victims Lower priority needs may have to be met in other ways. Structural And Nonstructural Hazards due to Disasters During and following a disaster, damage to building structures presents one of the greatest hazards. Damage will vary according to the type of disaster, the type and age of the structure and location in relation to the disaster center. The following is an overview of disaster hazards related to building structures and their contents. Hazards Related To Structural Type High-Rise And Apartment Buildings Engineered buildings, such as most high-rise structures, have performed well in earthquakes, bomb attacks and other disasters. Older high-rise buildings with steel and concrete construction are more susceptible to damage than the newer ones, which use curtain construction and prefabricated panels. Primary hazards in and around high-rise buildings include:  Broken glass.  Falling panels. Hazards in and around apartment buildings depend largely on the age and condition of the structure. Hazards may include:  Collapsing walkways and stairways.  Crumbling cornices and other trim.  Broken glass. Independent Homes Age, type of construction and type of disaster are major factors in potential damage to independent homes and garages. Older homes constructed of unreinforced brick are less stable than newer construction. Porches without support beams may collapse. Damage to single homes from earthquakes, Tropical Cyclones and floods can range from little damage to total destruction, e.g. Latur and Gujarat earthquakes. Following a disaster event, there is the potential for further collapse and fire due to ruptured gas lines, short circuit etc.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Thatched/Semi ThatchedHomes When thatched and semi thatched homes are displaced in a disaster (whether earthquake, storm, flood, or other), it may lead to large-scale fires hazards esp. during earthquakes and storms. Other Public Places Shopping arcades, sports arenas, airports, places of worship and other places where people gather may pose hazards in some types of disasters. For example, in an earthquake, terrorist attacks; bomb blasts, overhead structures may collapse or widespread panic in large crowds can result in casualties. Hazards Related to Nonstructural Type Fixtures and items within a home, garage, or office can pose hazards during or after a disaster event. The following are examples of some of the nonstructural hazards that may be encountered:  Gas line ruptures from cooking ranges displaced by shock or water.  Damage from falling books, dishes, or other cabinet contents.  Risk of injury or electric shock from displaced appliances and office equipment.  Hazardous products within reach of children.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 5 DisasterHazard Mitigation for Natural and Manmade Disasters Introduction Regardless of the event or the amount of warning offered, there are safety precautions that one can take to reduce or prevent injury. These measures include:  Personal safety.  Home and worksite preparation.  Community preparation. Personal Safety The personal safety measures that one takes depends on the circumstances one finds himself/herself in. Precautions for natural hazards are shown in preceding pages. Earthquake Before  Have a home earthquake plan and know what to do after the earthquake occurs.  Have a plan for reuniting all family members after an earthquake occurs.  Have an out-of-state family phone contact.  Have supplies on hand including water, a torch, a portable radio, food, a fire extinguisher and tools.  Bolt bookshelves, cabinets and other heavy furniture that is likely to fall during the event.  Move beds away from windows. During  Move pictures and other hanging objects away from beds.  Keep a pair of shoes/slippers next to your bed to avoid stepping on glass and other debris.  Drop, cover and hold.  Get under a heavy table or desk and hold on, or sit or stand against an inside wall.  Keep away from windows.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa After If indoors,stay there.  If outdoors, stay outdoors away from falling debris, trees and power lines.  If in your car, drive to a clear spot and stay in the car. Avoid stopping on or under flyovers/bridges etc.  Do not use elevators.  Expect aftershocks. These are just as serious as the main earthquake.  Put on shoes to protect from broken glass.  Check for injuries and fires.  Use a torch to inspect your residence for damage including gas, water and electrical lines and appliances.  If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve/regulator. Switch off individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses), and then switch off the main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).  Do not go into damaged areas.  Do not use telephones except in emergencies.  Do not use vehicles except in emergencies.  Use a portable radio for information.  Evacuate if your home is unsafe Tropical Cyclones Before  Know the risks of the area, the evacuation routes and the location of shelters.  Have a home cyclone plan of action.  Know what a cyclone “watch” and “warning” means. [Note: A cyclone watch means a cyclone may hit your area. A cyclone warning means such a cyclone is headed for your area.]  Have a portable radio and torch, as well as other supplies.  Ensure that enough nonperishable food and water supplies are on hand to last for at least 2 weeks.  Flood proof your home.  Keep trees trimmed.  Review your insurance policy to ensure that it provides adequate coverage. During Watch Phase (24-48 hours before landfall):  Board up all windows.  Fill your car’s tank and prepare to evacuate.  Check batteries and stock up on canned/dry food, medical supplies and drinking water.  Bring in outside objects (e.g., garbage cans, lawn furniture, bicycles).  Listen to the advice of local officials and evacuate if told to do so.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Warning Phase(24 hours or less before landfall):  Listen to the advice of local officials and evacuate if told to do so.  If you are not advised to evacuate, stay indoors and away from windows.  Stay away from floodwaters; never drive through them.  Be aware of the calm “eye”; the storm is not over.  Be ALERT for more dangers After  Wait until an area is declared safe before entering  Use a torch to inspect for damage including gas, water and electrical lines and appliances.  Stay away from downed power lines.  If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve/regulator. Switch off individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses) and then switch off the main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).  Do not use telephones except in emergencies.  Use a portable radio for information. Flood Before  Know the flood risk and the elevation of the area.  Prepare a home flood evacuation or escape plan.  Get flood insurance, if available.  Keep insurance papers, important documents and other valuables in a safe-deposit box.  Know what a flood and a flash flood “watch” and “warning” mean. [Note: A flood watch means a slow rising flood is possible for your area. A flood warning means flooding is already occurring or will occur soon in your area. A flash flood watch means there is a chance that flashes flooding could occur anytime within the next few hours. A flash flood warning means you may only have seconds to evacuate to higher ground.]  Have a family plan and choose a safe area in advance.  Have a portable radio, torch and emergency supplies. During Watch Phase (2-3 days for flood; 2-12 hours for flash flood):  Sandbag windows and doors.  Move furniture and other items to higher levels.  Fill your car’s tank.  Listen to radio or TV for up-to-the-minute information.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Warning Phase(24-48 hours for flood; 0-1 hour or flash flood):  Use telephones only for life-threatening emergencies.  Evacuate, if necessary and follow instructions.  Do not walk or drive through floodwaters.  Stay off bridges where water is covering them.  Heed barricades blocking roads.  Keep away from waterways during heavy rain. If you are in a valley area and hear a warning, get out of your car and get to high ground immediately.  Keep out of storm drains and irrigation ditches. After  Listen to a portable radio for information.  Boil drinking water before using (rolling boil for 10 minutes). Wells should be pumped out and the water tested for purity before drinking.  Use a torch to check for damage including gas, water and electrical lines and appliances.  If you smell gas or if there is a fire, turn off the main gas valve. Switch off individual circuit breakers (or pullout individual fuses), and then switch off the main circuit breaker (or pullout the main fuse).  Stay out of the disaster area.  Do not use telephones except in emergencies.  Do not use vehicles except in emergencies. Handling Chemicals Prevention of injury from hazardous materials in the home especially in rural India, where farming activity involves the usage and handling of farm related chemicals and pesticides is routine, chiefly lies in proper storage and handling. A simple acronym for safe storage procedures is Q.S.D.S. (Quantity, Storage, Disposal, Separation)  Quantity Limit the quantity of hazardous materials in storage.  Storage Isolate products in approved containers, store them inside closed cabinets and protect them from sources of ignition. Keep containers in storage tightly covered.  Disposal Dispose products that are no longer necessary by disposing off them properly.  Separation Separate incompatible materials (e.g., chlorine products and sulphuric - acid). When handling hazardous materials, be sure to:  Read the warnings on product labels.  Use the safety precautions (e.g., gloves, goggles, or breathing mask) recommended by the manufacturer.
  • 46.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Limitcontact to the degree possible. If you are not sure of the product with which you are dealingor if the product produces a noxious odor, smoke, or steamleave the area immediately. Call the local emergency service operator [usually 100(police), 101(fire), 102(Ambulance)] and observe the material from uphill, upwind and at a distance until qualified personnel arrive. If necessary, enlist the help of neighbours to warn others of the danger. If evacuation is required, evacuate to an upwind location. Moving uphill and upwind will prevent reintroduction to the hazard via the wind. Preparation for Potential Terrorist Attacks/Communal Riots Devastating acts, such as the series of bomb blasts at residential areas, public places, e.g. Delhi, Mumbai, Jammu & Kashmir, seizure of temples e.g. Akshardham in Gujarat, etc. have left many concerned about the possibility of future incidents in India and their potential impact. They have raised uncertainty about what might happen next, thus increasing stress levels. Nevertheless, there are things that can be done to prepare for the unexpected and reduce the stress that one may feel now and later should another emergency arise. Taking preparatory action can reassure an individual and his/her family, by instilling in them a spirit of self-confidence, by exerting a measure of control even in the face of such events. How To Prepare Oneself Finding out what can happen is the first step. Once it has been determined that disastrous events are possible and their potential of their occurrence in a community is high, it is important that individuals discuss them with their family or household. Develop a disaster/emergency plan together.  Create an emergency contact plan. Choose an out-station contact your family or household can call or e-mail to check on each other should a disaster/emergency occur. Your selected contact should live location that the probability of them being affected by the same disaster would be unlikely and they should know they are the chosen contact. Make sure every household member has that contact's and each other's, e-mail addresses and telephone numbers (home, work and cell). Leave these contact numbers at your children's schools, if you have children, and at your workplace. Your family should know that if telephones are not working, they need to be patient and try again later or try e-mail. Many people flood the telephone lines when emergencies happen but e-mail can sometimes get through when calls don't.  Fix a meeting place (Rendezvous). Having a predetermined meeting place away from your home will save time and minimize confusion should your home be affected or the area evacuated. You may even want to make arrangements to stay with a family member or friend in case of an emergency. Be sure to include any pets in these plans, since pets are not permitted in shelters and most hotels will not accept them.
  • 47.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Preparea disaster supplies kit. If you need to evacuate your home or a Curfew is imposed, having some essential supplies on hand will make you and your family more comfortable. Prepare a disaster supplies kit in an easy-to-carry container such as a Rucksack or suitcase. Include "special needs" items for any member of your household (infant food or items for people with disabilities or older people), first aid supplies (including prescription medications), a change of clothing for each household member, a sleeping bag or bedroll for each, a battery powered radio and extra batteries, food, bottled water and tools. It is also a good idea to include some cash and copies of important family documents (birth certificates, passports and licenses) in your kit. Copies of essential documents-like powers of attorney, birth and marriage certificates, insurance policies, life insurance beneficiary designations and a copy of your will-should also be kept in a safe location outside your home. A safe deposit box or the home of a friend or family member who lives out of town is a good choice.  Check on the school emergency plan of school-age children if any. You need to know if they will keep children at school until a parent or designated adult can pick them up or send them home on their own. Be sure that the school has updated information about how to reach parents and responsible caregivers to arrange for pickup. Ask what type of authorization the school may require to release a child to someone you designate, if you are not able to pick up your child. During times of emergency the school telephones may be overwhelmed with calls. However, in India most of the schools lack a disaster management plan as disasters are considered a rare possibility, also, the lack of a formal Disaster Management education contributes to the mindset. The Education Ministry authorities should hence make it mandatory for all schools and colleges to have a disaster/emergency plan and the same should be added to the students’ curriculum and be rehearsed on a monthly basis. When Disaster Strikes When disaster strikes in the form of a bomb blast, communal riot or if manifested in any other form that could prove to be dangerous to the community in general and your family in particular, adhering to the following basic suggestions would go a long way in saving you from the impending event:  Remain calm and be patient.  Follow the advice of local police/emergency officials.  Listen to your radio or television for news and instructions.  If the disaster occurs near you, check for injuries. Give first aid and get help for seriously injured people.  If the disaster occurs near your home while you are there, check for damage using a torch. Do not light matches or candles or turn on electrical switches. Check for fires, fire hazards and other household hazards. Sniff for gas leaks, if you smell gas or suspect a leak, turn off the main gas valve, open windows, and get everyone outside quickly.
  • 48.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Shutoff any other damaged utilities.  Confine or secure your pets.  Call your family contact—do not use the telephone again unless it is a life- threatening emergency.  Check on your neighbours, especially those who are elderly or disabled. Lessons from the past…. As is learnt from the events of the serial bomb blasts in New Delhi, Mumbai, Jammu and Kashmir or communal conflagrations in Gujarat or after the Babri Masjid demolition, the following things can happen/expected to happen:  There can be significant numbers of casualties and/or damage to buildings and the infrastructure. Contact office/employers so that up-to-date information about any medical needs you may have and on how to contact your designated beneficiaries can be conveyed to you.  Heavy law enforcement involvement at local, state and National levels follows a terrorist attack/communal riot due to the event's criminal nature.  Health and mental health resources in the affected communities can be strained to their limits, maybe even overwhelmed.  Extensive media coverage, strong public fear and international implications and consequences can continue for a prolonged period.  Workplaces and schools may be closed, and there may be restrictions on domestic and international travel.  You and your family or household may have to evacuate an area, avoiding roads blocked for your safety.  Clean up may take many months.  Usually after a terrorist attack tensions may flare up leading to Communal violence and large scale riots. Evacuation of affected Area If local police/emergency authorities ask you to leave your home, they have a good reason to make this request, and you should heed the advice immediately. Listen to your radio or television and follow the instructions of local police/emergency officials and keep these simple tips in mind:-  Wear long-sleeved shirts, long pants/salwar kameez and sturdy shoes so you can be protected as much as possible as also this will aid in quicker mobility.  Take your disaster supplies kit.  Take your pets with you; do not leave them behind. Because pets are not permitted in public shelters, follow your plan to go to a relative's or friend's home.  Lock your home.
  • 49.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Usetravel routes specified by local authorities—don't use shortcuts because certain areas may be impassable or dangerous.  Stay away from downed power lines. Heed to local authorities advise. Your local authorities will provide you with the most accurate information specific to an event in your area. Staying tuned to local radio and television and following their instructions is your safest choice. If you're sure you have time:  Call your family contact to tell them where you are going and when you expect to arrive.  Shut off water, gas and electricity before leaving. Curfew If a curfew is imposed in your area, what they mean is for you to remain inside your home or office and protect yourself there. Close and lock all windows and exterior doors. Get your disaster supplies kit, and make sure the radio is working. Go to an interior room without windows. Keep listening to your radio or television until you are told all is safe or you are told to evacuate. Local officials may call for evacuation in specific areas at greatest risk in your community. Additional Positive Steps Raw, unedited footage of terrorism events and people's reaction to those events can be very upsetting, especially to children. It is not recommend that children watch television news reports about such events, especially if the news reports show images over and over again about the same incident. Young children do not realize that it is repeated video footage, and think the event is happening again and again. Adults may also need to give themselves a break from watching disturbing footage. However, listening to local radio and television reports will provide you with the most accurate information from responsible governmental authorities on what's happening and what actions you will need to take. Some arrangements to take turns listening to the news with other adult members of your household could be made. Another useful preparation includes learning some basic first aid. In an emergency situation, you would need to tend to your own well being first and then consider first aid for others immediately around you, including possibly assisting injured people to evacuate a building if necessary.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa People whomay have come into contact with a biological or chemical agent may need to go through a decontamination procedure and receive medical attention. Listen to the advice of local officials on the radio or television to determine what steps you will need to take to protect yourself and your family. As emergency services will likely be overwhelmed, only call 100 or 102 for life-threatening emergencies. First Aid (International Red Cross Procedure) If you encounter someone who is injured, apply the emergency action steps: Check- Call-Care.  Check the scene to make sure it is safe for you to approach. Then check the victim for unconsciousness and life-threatening conditions. Someone who has a life- threatening condition, such as not breathing or severe bleeding, requires immediate care by trained responders and may require treatment by medical professionals.  Call out for help.  Care for someone who is hurt till professional help arrives. Control Bleeding o Cover the wound with a dressing, and press firmly against the wound (direct pressure). o Elevate the injured area above the level of the heart if you do not suspect that the victim has a broken bone. o Cover the dressing with a roller bandage. o If the bleeding does not stop: o Apply additional dressings and bandages. o Use a pressure point to squeeze the artery against the bone. o Provide care for shock. Care for Shock o Keep the victim from getting chilled or overheated. o Elevate the legs about 12 inches (if broken bones are not suspected). o Do not give food or drink to the victim. Tend Burns o Stop the burning by cooling the burn with large amounts of water. o Cover the burn with dry, clean dressings or cloth.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Care forInjuries to Muscles, Bones and Joints o Rest the injured part. o Apply ice or a cold pack to control swelling and reduce pain. o Avoid any movement or activity that causes pain. o If you must move the victim because the scene is becoming unsafe, try to immobilize the injured part to keep it from moving. Be Aware of Biological/Radiological Exposure Listen to local radio and television reports for the most accurate information from responsible governmental and medical authorities on what's happening and what actions you will need to take. Reduce Any Care Risks The risk of getting a disease while giving first aid is extremely rare. However, to reduce the risk even further: o Avoid direct contact with blood and other body fluids. o Use protective equipment, such as disposable gloves and breathing barriers. o Thoroughly wash your hands with soap and water immediately after giving care. It is important to be prepared for an emergency and to know how to give emergency care.
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Chapter 6 Homeand Worksite Preparations - Assembling and Storing Survival Supplies in Anticipation of a Potential Disaster Preparedness is the key to survival in a disaster or emergency. Individuals, families and worksites can take steps that will help minimize structural and nonstructural hazards during a disaster, facilitate escape and promote survival in the period immediately following the event. Reducing Structural And Nonstructural Hazards Many injuries from structural and nonstructural hazards are easily preventable. Some steps that you can take to reducing structural and nonstructural hazards are shown in the table 6.1 below. Type Of Hazard Precautions Structural  Re-inforce/Retro-fit older houses.  Board or place protective tape on windows and glass doors to minimize flying glass.  Consult local architect for suitable disaster proof design if located in high-risk zone.  Check standard/quality of materials used in construction when moving into an apartment. Nonstructural  Anchor such furniture as bookshelves, cabinets and grandfather clocks to the wall.  Secure appliances and office equipment in place with industrial-strength Velcro7.  Secure cabinet doors with childproof fasteners.  Locate and label gas, electricity and water shut-offs before disasters occur. After a disaster, shut off the utilities as needed to prevent fires and other risks. Store a shut- off wrench where it will be immediately available.  Invest in a portable fire extinguisher. Table 6.1.Precautions Against Structural And Nonstructural Hazards You can cope best by preparing for disaster before it strikes. One way to prepare is by assembling a Disaster Supplies Kit. Once disaster hits, you won’t have time to shop or search for supplies. But if you’ve gathered supplies in advance, you and your family can endure an evacuation or home confinement. Kit Preparation  Review the checklist given in the following pages.
  • 53.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Gatherthe supplies/alternatives that are listed.  Place the supplies you need for an evacuation in an easy-to-carry bag/container. These supplies are listed with an asterisk (*). Water Store water in plastic containers such as soft drink bottles. Avoid using containers that will decompose or break, such as milk cartons or glass bottles. A normally active person needs to drink at least 2.5 litres of water each day. Hot environments and intense physical activity can double that amount. Children, nursing mothers and ill people will need more.  Store 5 litres of water per person per day (2.5 ltrs for drinking, 2.5 ltrs for food preparation/sanitation.)*  Keep at least a 3-day supply of water for each person in your household. If you have questions about the quality of the water, purify it before drinking. You can heat water to a rolling boil for 10 minutes or use commercial purification tablets to purify the water. You can also use household liquid chlorine bleach if it is pure, unscented 5.25% sodium hypochlorite. To purify water, use the following table as a guide: WATER QUANTITY BLEACH ADDED 1 ltr 5 ltrs 20 ltrs 4 Drops 16 Drops 1 Teaspoon 6.2 Ratios For Purifying Water With Bleach After adding bleach, shake or stir the water container and let it stand thirty minutes before consumption. Clothing And Bedding *Include at least one complete change of clothing and footwear per person.  Sturdy shoes or boots*  Hat and gloves  Thermal underwear  Sunglasses  Rain coat*  Blankets or sleeping bags*
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Food Store atleast a 3-day supply of nonperishable food. Select foods that require no refrigeration, preparation, or cooking and little or no water. If you must heat food, pack a can of Kerosene and a small stove. Select food items that are compact and lightweight. *Include a selection of the following foods in your Disaster Supplies Kit:  Ready-to-eat canned meats, fruits and vegetables, noodles, Khasta poori  Canned juices, milk, soup (if powdered, store extra water)  Staplessugar, salt, pepper, masala  High-energy foodsbutter/ghee, biscuits, chocolate bars etc  Vitamins  Foods for infants, elderly persons or persons on special diets  Comfort/stress foodshome made sweets, hard candy, sweetened cereals, lollipops, instant coffee, tea bags First Aid Kit Assemble a first aid kit for your home and one for car/cars. A first aid kit* should include:  Sterile adhesive bandages in assorted sizes  2-inch sterile gauze pads (4-6)  4-inch sterile gauze pads (4-6)  Hypoallergenic adhesive tape  Triangular bandages (3)  Needle  Moistened napkins  Antiseptic  Thermometer  Tongue blades (2)  Tube of petroleum jelly or other lubricant  Assorted sizes of safety pins  Cleaning agent/soap  Latex gloves (2 pair)  Sunscreen  2-inch sterile roller bandages (3 rolls)  3-inch sterile roller bandages (3 rolls)  Scissors  Tweezers Nonprescription/prescription Drugs  Aspirin or nonaspirin pain reliever
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Anti-diarrheamedication  Antacid (for stomach upset)  Syrup of Ipecac (used to induce vomiting if advised by the Poison Control Center)  Laxative  Activated charcoal (used if advised by the Poison Control Center)  Any other drugs prescribed by physician for family members suffering from diabetes, Hyper tension, Heart diseases etc Tools And Supplies  Tiffin carrier or paper cups, plates and plastic utensils*  Emergency preparedness manual*  Battery-operated radio and extra batteries*  Torch and extra batteries*  Cash or Credit Cards, change*  Matches in a waterproof container  Aluminum foil  Plastic storage containers  Paper, pencil  Needles, thread  Medicine dropper  Shut-off wrench, to turn off household gas and water  Whistle  Plastic sheeting  Map of the area (for locating shelters)  Can opener, utility knife*  Fire extinguisher: small canister, ABC type  Tube tent/Polythene sheet (12’x12’)  Pliers  Tape  Nylon rope Sanitation  Toilet paper, napkins*  Soap, liquid detergent*  Feminine supplies*  Personal hygiene items*  Plastic garbage bags, ties (for personal sanitation uses)  Plastic bucket with tight lid  Disinfectant/Dettol  Household chlorine bleach
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    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa Special Items Rememberfamily members with special needs, such as infants and elderly or disabled persons. For infants*  Formula (Amul, Nestle, Farex)  Diapers  Bottles  Powdered milk  Medications For Adults*  Heart and high blood pressure medication  Insulin  Prescription drugs  Denture needs  Contact lenses and supplies  Extra eye glasses Entertainmentgames and books Important Family Documents Keep these records in a waterproof, portable container.  Will, insurance policies, contracts, deeds, stocks and bonds  Passports, social security cards, immunization records  Bank account numbers  Credit card account numbers and companies  Inventory of valuable household goods, important telephone numbers  Family records (birth, marriage, death certificates) Creating A Family Disaster Plan Mitigation Drills In The Home Formulation of plan. . .  Contact your local emergency management office and your local Indian Red Cross chapter. - Find out which disasters are most likely to happen in your community. - Ask how you would be warned.
  • 57.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa - Findout how to prepare for each type of disaster.  Meet with your family. - Discuss the types of disasters that could occur. - Explain how to prepare and respond. - Discuss what to do if advised to evacuate. - Practice what you have discussed.  Plan how your family will stay in contact if separated by disaster. - Pick two meeting places:  A location, a safe distance from your home in case of fire/any other disaster.  A place outside your neighbourhood in case you can’t return home.  Choose an out-of-state family/friend as an “SOS (Save Our Souls) contact” for everyone to call. o Complete the following steps.  Paste emergency telephone numbers by every phone.  Show responsible family members how and when to shut off water, gas and electricity at main switches.  Contact your local fire department to learn about home fire hazards. - Learn first aid and CPR. Contact your local Indian Red Cross chapter for information and training.  Meet with your neighbours. - Plan how the neighbourhood could work together after a disaster. Know your neighbours’ skills (medical, technical). - Consider how you could help neighbours who have special needs, such as elderly or disabled persons. - Make plans for childcare in case parents can’t get home. Emergency Evacuation Planning Develop an evacuation plan at home or work place that provides for escape from every room, as part of your emergency evacuation plan:  Consider the needs of children and physically challenged individuals.  Inform all family members of the plan
  • 58.
    Disaster Mitigation Copyright@kcmonnappa  Displaythe emergency evacuation plan at a prominent place in the office.  Run practice escape drills.