Diarrheal Research Paper

Diarrheal Research Paper
Diarrheal is an intestinal disorder in which an individual is induced to frequently release fecal. This
consistent fluid loss leads to dehydration and nutrient loss. If an individual is not able to replace the
loss in due amount of time, this can eventually lead to death. Nevertheless, although it may seem
diarrheal (the constant release of fecal) is the cause of painful effects, it is not. Rather diarrhea is a
mechanism the body uses to get rid of the harmful bacteria (pathogen) inside the body. The pathogen
is typically presented in the water and food one consumes, and is injected in the body. This infection
known as amoebiasis is most prevalent in developing countries, because water sanitation may not be
fully adhered to be taken action for. It is estimated that there are 50,000,000 infections and 100,000
deaths are caused by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Researchers such as Ralston and colleagues supported the hypothesis that trogocytosis is a
mechanism in which cells receive nutrition from other cells, however, in the transaction parasites
and host cells, the parasites virulence is enhanced killing the host cells. In the processes of
amoebiasis, ingested E. histolytica settles in the colon of the individual, releases its mucus and
interacts with the exposed enterocyte cells lining in colon causing cell death by lysis. Other models
suggested that parasite attached themselves to host cells in order to kill through unclear mechanism
involving releasing substances into the cell membranes. Additionally there was also a model
indicating that pathogens engulf and ingest dying enterocytes by phagocytosis. However, this latter
model is not consistent with the finding that parasites nibble on host cells through consistent actions
causing cell death, then moving on once death is
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A Research Study On Symbiosis
INTRODUCTION: Symbiosis is the theme of this chapter as well as the theme throughout the
world. Both organisms may benefit from the relationship or one organism may benefit while the
other may suffer. When looking at life in the grand scheme, symbiosis is everywhere. It occurs
within our own bodies as well as in many other organisms around the world. Evolutionary biologist,
Toby Kiers, makes two valuable points when describing symbiosis. Kiers states that, "We need to
separate important from harmonious. The micro biome is incredibly important but it doesn't mean
that it's well balanced. Both partners may benefit, but there's this inherent tension. Symbiosis is
conflict – conflict that can never be totally resolved."(Yong, 2016). There is ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Wolbachia virtually exists everywhere. Wolbachia symbiotic relationship with arthropods involves
manipulating the host's reproduction life. It acts as a reproductive parasite that manipulates the sex
lives of its host to further its own end. The host, the arthropod, inevitably suffers, causing the
relationship between the bacterium and host to be a commensalism relationship. Some hosts, like
arthropods, may die, become sterile, or be unaffected in general. The mating pool can become very
limited due to the effects of Wolbachia. One may say that Wolbachia is a bad bacterium, but it can
possess some beneficial sides. In some species the bacterium may actually benefit the host. For
example, the nematode worm, which apparently cannot survive without W. pipientis. It may also
help flies and mosquitoes by preventing viruses and other pathogens attacking the host. Another
example where the host benefits exist is bed bugs. Wolbachia acts as a nutritional supplement,
creating B–vitamins. B–vitamins do not exist in the blood, which is consumed by the bed bugs;
therefore, without the source of B–vitamins the bugs growth is stunted and they become infertile
(Yong, 2016). Pannebakker et al. (2007) wanted to closely understand the symbiotic relationship
between Asobara tabida, a wasp, and Wolbachia. To conduct this study, they first understood that A.
tabida is naturally infected by three strains of Wolbachia. The research team decided to infect A.
tabida with just the wAtab3

A Research Study On Premature Delivery
Abstract Premature delivery is a significant cause of child mortality and morbidity worldwide. It is
particularly prevalent in the developing world. As HIV is highly prevalent in Tanzania and much of
sub–Saharan Africa, it is important to determine risk factors for prematurity among HIV–positive
pregnancies. The aims of this study were to identify risk factors of live preterm (<37 completed
weeks gestation) and very preterm (<34 completed weeks gestation) birth among a cohort of 927
HIV positive women living in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, who enrolled in the Tanzania Vitamin and
HIV Infection Trial between 1995 and 1997. Multivariable relative risk regression models were used
to determine the association of potential maternal risk factors ... Show more content on
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Preterm birth is the leading cause of neonatal mortality.1 It is estimated that preterm birth is the
direct cause of 29% of deaths in children under 28 days and 11% of deaths in children under 5
years.1–3 Prematurity disproportionately affects newborns in resource–constrained countries, where
it is both more common and more often leads to adverse health outcomes. A systematic review from
2010 reports that 7.5% and 11.9% of births in developed countries and in Africa, respectively, were
preterm.4 In Tanzania, 11%5 of births are premature and prematurity is the second leading cause of
neonatal death.6 In a study of hospitalized neonates in Tanzania, the neonatal mortality rate for
preterm infants was twice that as for full–term infants, 26% versus 13%.7 Expending extra resources
on pregnant women with risk factors for prematurity could reduce the prevalence of prematurity.
Not only would this have immediate benefits, such as reducing neonatal mortality, but also it could
reduce the risk of chronic disease due to preterm delivery throughout the life course.8,9 This could
substantially lower long term health expenditures. The prevalence of HIV infection among
Tanzanian women is estimated to be 6.6%.10 Given the significant proportion of pregnant women
who are HIV–infected in some regions of the world, it is important to determine

HIV Infection Essay
Gastrointestinal infections seen with HIV infection may occur from such parasitic organisms as
Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba coli, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium sp,
Microsporidium sp, and Cytoisospora (formerly Isospora) belli. Only Cryptosporidium and
Cytoisospora are part of definitional criteria for AIDS, though one or more of these agents may be
identified in the GI tract by stool examination at some point in the course of AIDS.[419]
Cryptosporidium is far more frequently identified than Microsporidium or Cytoisospora, at least in
developed nations, while the others are more sporadic in occurrence. In the U.S. less than 5% of
HIV infected persons develop cryptosporidiosis, with an increased risk for infection when the
CD4 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are no specific gross pathologic features of cryptosporidiosis, and infection is usually
unaccompanied by inflammation, hemorrhage, or ulceration. Diagnosis is usually made from stool
specimen examination, either by microscopy or aided by PCR analysis. After ingesting infective
oocysts, there is formation of sporozoites that attach to intestinal epithelium to trigger elongation of
microvilli that enclose the sporozoite within a vacuole. There is asexual multiplication of the
organisms in host intestinal epithelial cells within a vacuole so that the organisms are intracellular
but extra cytoplasmic located on the brush border. These sporozoites become merozoites that invade
adjacent cells. Gametogeny follows next, leading to production of oocysts that are either thin–
walled and auto infective or thick–walled and passed in feces to become infective to others. More
thin–walled oocysts are present in immunocompromised hosts, leading to the persistence with
greater severity of the disease. The incubation period is 2 to 14 days.[432,536,536,539
The cryptosporidia appear histologically as quite small 2 μm uniform rounded shapes; they develop
outside of human cells but within a vacuole derived from the host cell. Thus, in tissue sections
stained with hematoxylin–eosin, these organisms are small pale blue dots found lined along the
mucosal brush border of the intestine.

Food Borne Illness: Causative Pathogen of Infectious...
Food borne Illness rubric
Causative pathogen of infectious disease Such infections occur because of food contamination by
some biological agents like viruses and bacteria. There are also infections that are from chemical
and physical agents. However, the pathogens have the most significant repercussions. Viruses
replicate inside other cells and, therefore, are unable to survive in the host for a prolonged time.
Norwalk virus is the most common virus that causes the disease. Bacteria have no nucleus and
because of the ability to form spores, tend to be highly resistant to heat. An example of this is the
Clostridium botulinism. However, some can survive in cold conditions, including Listeria
monocytogenes, which grows at freezing conditions. Other serotypes like the Clostridium
botulinism also grow under extremely low conditions. There are also protozoa that cause such
related disease, including Entamoeba histolytica (Bjorklund 2005).
Mode of transmission The transmission of the disease occurs in various methods. However, the main
transmission of the illness is through food or water. In food, it is through the taking of contaminated
food that the disease will find its way into the body of a human. An example would be a situation
where some people who eat food from a common source are diagnosed with the same disease. The
pathogens in the food will attack all the people who consume the food unsparingly and lead to an
outbreak of the disease. Water is another channel

Diarrhea: Constipation and Health Care Provider
Diarrhea
What is diarrhea?
Diarrhea describes bowel movements (stool) that are loose and watery. Diarrhea is a common
condition and is usually not serious. Many people will have diarrhea once or twice a year. It
typically lasts two to three days and can be treated with over–the–counter medicines.
Some cases require medical attention because diarrhea can quickly deplete the body's supply of
water and salts that tissues need to function. The very young, old, and sick may have difficulty
replacing these lost fluids. Diarrhea that lasts for several weeks or contains blood may indicate a
serious illness. In these cases, you should contact your health care provider.
What are the symptoms of diarrhea?
The symptoms of mild diarrhea include: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Afterward, pat the area dry (do not rub) with a clean, soft towel. Also, apply petroleum jelly or a
hemorrhoid cream to the anus.
Can diarrhea harm your health?
Ongoing diarrhea causes the body to lose large amounts of water and nutrients. If you have diarrhea
more than three times a day and you are not drinking enough fluids, you could become dehydrated.
Dehydration is the loss of water from body tissues, which disturbs the balance of essential
substances in your body. Dehydration can cause serious complications if it is not treated.
Notify your health care provider if you have ongoing diarrhea and are experiencing any of the
following signs of dehydration: * Dark urine * Small amount of urine * Rapid heart rate *
Headaches * Flushed, dry skin * Irritability * Confusion
What is Diarrhea?
You can say you have diarrhea if you pass stools of liquid consistency more than three times in one
day. Diarrhea strikes all ages at one time or another. On average, adults can experience diarrhea as
many as four times per year. Usually, when this condition presents it clears up on it's own after a day
or two. This is considered acute or short–term diarrhea and usually will not last 3 weeks.
Chronic or long–term diarrhea can be dangerous and symptomatic of other problems. Chronic
diarrhea is that which lasts longer than three weeks it's usually related to the bowel function

Huma Case Studies
On admission, the body temperature was 39ºC. Physical examination revealed an ill–appearing
well–developed girl with mild pallor, and anicteric sclera. The patient had right upper quadrant
abdominal tenderness with no distension or hepatomegaly. Relevant laboratory data included white
blood cell count of 13.780/μL with 78% neutrophils; hemoglobin, 10.9 g/dL and C–reactive protein
was 325 mg/L. Liver function tests, blood urea nitrogen and electrolytes were within reference
ranges. Chest radiograph was normal.
Abdominal ultrasound and computed tomography (CT) study revealed a large abscess measuring
76.7 x 75.7 x 53.1 mm at segment VI of the liver (figure 1). The collection extended to the
hepatorenal recess and to the retroperitoneal compartment involving the anterior pararenal and
perinephric space with poor delimitation of the lateral renal cortex and normal renal parenchyma. ...
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quintana serologies were negative. Blood and urine cultures as well as culture and staining for acid–
fast bacilli were negative. Nasopharyngeal aspirate was positive for influenza B by PCR.
Under ultrasound–guidance a 10–French pigtail drainage catheter was placed percutaneously into
the liver abscess and approximately 40 ml of creamy brown pus was aspirated. Bacteriological
culture yielded S. constellatus, Bacteroides ovatus and Bacteroides

Hydrogenosome Research Paper
Hydrogenosome relationship
Under oxygen–restricted conditions, the mitochondrion has undergone reductive alterations of its
content and function. These changes were most likely driven by the independence of ATP generation
on oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. These reduced mitochondria are called
mitochondrion–related organelles (MROs) (9). There are two types which lack mitochondrial
DNA––the hydrogenosome and the mitosome. They are distinguished by the fact that the
hydrogenosome has retained ATP–generating capacity and the mitosome has not (5). The anaerobic
metabolism performed by the hydrogenosome initially suggested that the organelle might have
originated through endosymbiosis with an anaerobic bacterium such as Clostridium. It has
subsequently been shown that genes for Cpn10, Cpn60, and Hsp70 are present in the nuclear ...
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From studies of both the Archezoan and Symbiogenetic Scenarios, the latter theorizes that the
mitochondrion and the eukaryotic cell evolved together as the result of a symbiosis between two
prokaryotes. The host was an autotrophic methanogenic archaeon and the symbiont was an –
proteobacterium capable of living both anaerobically and aerobically. This provides explanations for
the need of an endosymbiont and why gene transfer was an essential part of the process. Studies of
MROs such as the hydrogenosome show that it and the mitochondrion share a system for protein
transport and hydrogenosomes have now been found in species that were previously thought to have
separated from other eukaryotes before the mitochondrial endosymbiosis. Further research with a
broadening base of organisms will continue to question whether all eukaryotes contain a
mitochondrial ancestor, highlighting the important role that mitochondrial endosymbiosis has played
in eukaryotic

1.Describe The Mode Of Actions Of The Drugs That Interfere
1. Describe the mode of actions of the drugs that interfere with protein synthesis.
Drugs that interfere with protein synthesis are derived from various actinomycetes species
Streptomyces and Micromonospora. They inhibit protein synthesis by binding to one of the
ribosomal subunits. Thus, disrupting protein synthesis as the ribosomes can no longer produce
proteins.
2. Name and describe the actions of the aminoglycoside subgroup.
Aminoglycosides are composed of one or more amino sugars and an aminocyclitol ring
And the aminoglycosides are relatively broad spectrum drugs. They inhibit protein synthesis by
binding to one of the ribosomal subunits. Streptomyces was one of the first aminoglycosides to be
used and has been somewhat ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If a patient is prescribed it, levels in the blood need to be constantly monitored. It is used to treat
typhoid fever, brain abscesses and rickettsial and chlamydial infections that are resistant to other
drugs.
5. Name and describe the uses of the newly developed classes of antibiotics.
Fosfomycin trimethamine is a phosphoric acid agent used to treat UTIs caused by enteric bacteria. It
works by inhibiting an enzyme needed for cell wall synthesis. Synercid used to treat Staphylococcus
and Enterococcus infections. These infections often include endocarditis and surgical infections and
they work by binding to the ribosomes. Daptomycin is a lipopeptide works against gram positive
bacteria disrupting membrane functions. It is not used very often.
Ketolides are similar to erythromycin and used to treat respiratory infections that are caused by
macrolide resistant bacteria. Oxazolidinone works by inhibiting the initiation of protein synthesis as
it interferes with the interaction between mRNA and the ribosomes. It is used to treat MRSA and
vancomycin resistant Enterococcus.
6. Describe how polyenes work on fungal cells. Why is this drug safe for us?
Polyenes work by binding to fungal membranes and cause the loss of selective permeability. The
cells essentially start to leak their insides out. These drugs are specific for fungi because they bind to
the

Digestive System Research Paper
Mary Gorton Microbiology Research paper Page 1 General defense mechanisms associated with the
digestive system The gastrointestinal tract is a lymphoid organ, and the lymphoid tissue within it is
collectively referred to as the gut–associated lymphoid tissue or GALT. The number of lymphocytes
in the GALT is roughly equivalent to those in the spleen, and, based on location, these cells are
distributed in three basic populations: 1. Peyer's Patches: These are lymphoid follicles similar in
many ways to lymph nodes, located in the mucosa and extending into the submucosa of the small
intestine, especially the ileum. In adults, B–lymphocytes predominate in Peyer's patches. Smaller
lymphoid nodules can be found throughout the intestinal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Roughly 80% of people do not have any signs or symptoms, if they do they appear as the following;
Jaundice, fatigue, dark urine, abdominal pain, loss of appetite and nausea. Primarily blood and blood
products transmit the virus. The majority of infected individuals has either received blood
transfusions prior to 1990 (when screening of the blood supply for HCV was implemented) or has
used intravenous drugs. Sexual transmission between monogamous couples is rare but HCV
infection is more common in sexually promiscuous individuals. Perinatal transmission from mother
to fetus or infant is also relatively low but possible (less than 10%). Many individuals infected with
HCV have no obvious risk factors. Most of these persons have probably been inadvertently exposed
to contaminated blood or blood products. (Worman, M. D.) Interferon and ribavirin are two drugs
licensed for the treatment of persons with chronic hepatitis C. Interferon can be taken alone or in
combination with ribavirin. Combination therapy, using pegylated interferon and ribavirin, is
currently the treatment of choice. Combination therapy can get rid of the virus in up to 5 out of 10
persons for genotype 1 and in up to 8 out of 10 persons for genotype 2 and 3. (Viral Hepatitis C)
More than 80% of infected individuals eventually progress to the chronic stage Mary Gorton

Crypto: A Diarrheal Disease
Cryptosporidium parvum is a parasite that causes the disease Crypto, which is a diarrheal disease.
Crypto makes its home in the intestines of people. When there is a bowel movement, more crypto is
released in the diarrhea. It is then spread in any body of water. If any of that water is swallowed,
Crypto spreads to that person. It is very hard to kill because it has a outer shell that lets it survive
even in the presence of chlorine. Crypto is the most common waterborne disease in the United
States.
Symptoms include diarrhea, stomach pain, dehydration, fever, nausea, and weight loss. In people
with a healthy immune system symptoms last 1 to 2 weeks. People with a weakened immune
system, such as AIDS are more susceptible to more serious illness. ... Show more content on
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Adults usually display the symptoms more than children. Almost all people recover from Hepatitis A
with a healthy immune system.
Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan infection commonly known as Amebiasis. It is usually spread
in the fecal–oral route that is problematic in countries with poor sanitation and hygiene. The
protozoan exists as a cyst and then bursts in the colon when it enters the body. It can then spread to
the liver or other organs.
In many cases infected persons may not exhibit any symptoms. Otherwise, symptoms are usually
stomach related diseases or even problems in the brain, lungs, and heart.
Citations
"Amebiasis." : Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Sept. 2016.
"Anthrax." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2015. Web. 12 Sept. 2016.
"Crypto." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2015. Web. 12 Sept. 2016.
"Hepatitis A." World Health Organization. World Health Organization, n.d. Web. 12 Sept. 2016.

"Q fever." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2015. Web. 12 Sept.

The Effect Of Lactoferrin And Its Effects On The Human Body
INTRODUCTION Lactoferrin (Lf) is a member of a 300–500 million years old transferrin family
(Teng, 2002). It is a single–chain protein of approximately 690 amino acids and a molecular weight
of 77kDa (Nuijens et al., 1996). Lactoferrin (also known as lactotransferrin) was first identified in
1939 as a red protein that was present in bovine milk (Sorensen and Sorensen 1939). Lf is a whey
protein found in the milk and other biological fluids (including tears, pancreatic juice, mucous,
saliva, bile, genital and nasal secretions and in circulating neutrophils) and other tissues of mammals
(Bellamy et al., 1992). Other members of the transferrin families are serum transferrin,
ovotransferrin, melanotransferrin, and the inhibitor for carbonic anhydrase Transferrins are iron–
binding blood plasma glycoproteins and their function is to control the level of free iron in
biological fluids such as the ones mentioned above (Crichton and Charloteaux, 1987). Lf is
produced by mucosal epithelial cells in various mammals and recent studies have shown that LF is
also produced by fishes and it is the second most abundant protein in milk (Torres et al., 2006). Lf
has a high iron–binding affinity and is the only transferrin which can retain iron over a wide pH
range even extremely acidic pH (Aisen and Leibman., 1972). Lf has a net positive charge and its
distributed in various tissue which make it a multifunctional protein. It contributes to various
functions in the body such as regulating

A Study of Personal Hygiene in Nigerian Students Essay
A descriptive study was carried on knowledge and attitude of pupils in some of primary school
regarding personal hygiene in Ebril city 2011. Questionnaires were reviewed by 10 experts in
nursing field for validity. Results revealed 94% of students know the requirement of personal
hygiene, the majority of them also knew the importance of hand washing pertaining to disease
prevention and for good health. The results also concludes that 60% of them believed that clean and
neat cloths is important indicator for healthy individual and 56% of them believed that improper
personal hygiene is the most important risk factor for disease. Finally study recommended health
education must be done for students in all primary schools about personal ... Show more content on
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In this study in–depth interview was carried out to collect the data. Study revealed hand washing
was the familiar practice adopted by the respondents 30.7% , followed by glove use 18.7%. and
10.7% were used hair restrain, 8% of them keeping nails clean, 5.3% of them used apron and cap.
Similarly 4% of respondent knew how to keep tidy hair and to remove ring/jewellery while handling
food. Only 12% of respondents were able to describe effective hand washing procedure, and 72% of
them wear gloves while preparing raw material. 52% didn't wash their hands with every glove
change and 60% didn't change gloves after preparing raw material. Lastly the good hand washing
practice among food handlers require very strict attention to prevent the incidence of food borne
illness among school children.(13)
A descriptive study was conducted on an application on determining hygiene behaviors of university
students at Gazi university,2011. Results show that 61.38% students were always washing their hand
after touching a pet or any animal. 92.28% were always washing their hand after using toilet,
however 6.77% of them never brushed their teeth. And 33.23% of students were generally wearing
the same skirts or trousers two days and 30.26% of them wearing the same underwear two days
successively. 16.08% of students never used anti bacterial gel or wet wipes for cleaning hands. Thus
this study suggested that hygiene

Tawa Tawa, a Medicine!
JPRHC Review Article REVIEW ON PHYTOCHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGICAL
ASPECTS OF EUPHORBIA HIRTA LINN. SANDEEP B. PATIL*, MRS. NILOFAR S.
NAIKWADE, CHANDRAKANT S. MAGDUM For author affiliations, see end of text This paper is
available online at www.jprhc.com ABSTRACT: Medicinal herbs are the local heritage with global
importance. Medicinal herbs have curative properties due to presence of various complex chemical
substance of different composition, which are found as secondary plant metabolites in one or more
parts of these plants. These plant metabolites according to their composition are grouped as
alkaloids, glycosides, corticosteroids, essential oils etc. Euphorbia hirta, (familyEuphorbiaceae) is
an herb found in many parts of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both the extract and the triterpenes exerted significant and dose–dependent anti–inflammatory
activity in the model of phorbol acetate–induced ear inflammation in mice. The lyophilized aqueous
extract showed analgesic, antipyretic and anti–inflammatory activity in mice and rats. A central
depressant activity, expressed by a strong sedative effect associated with anxiolytic effect, was also
observed (14). Sedative and Anxiolytic activity: Lyophilized aqueous extract of Euphorbia hirta L.
(Euphorbiaceae) has been evaluated for behavioral effects in mice. Sedative properties could be
confirmed with high doses (100 mg of dried plant/kg, and more), by a decrease of behavioral
parameters measured in non–familiar environment tests, whereas anticonflict effects appeared at
lower doses (12.5 and 25 mg of dried plant/kg), by an enhancement of behavioral parameters
measured in the staircase test and in the light/dark choice situation test. These findings validate the
traditional use of E. hirta as a sedative and reveal original anxiolytic properties (15). JPRHC | July
2009 | Vol. 1 | No.1 | 113–133 Page 118 Antidiarrhoeal activity: The antidiarrhoeal activity of a
lyophilized decoction of the whole plant was investigated in mice. It demonstrated activity in
experimental models of diarrhoea induced by castor oil, arachidonic acid and prostaglandin E.
Quercitrin, a

Description Of The Amoeba Naegleria Fowleri
Included in the kingdom Protista, the amoeba Naegleria fowleri has proven to be pathogenic when
entering the brain through the nasal cavity. Out of the numerous species of Naegleria, only the
single–celled fowleri is of vital concern to human health. This free–living ameboflagellate can be
discovered in one of three stages depending on its surroundings (Fero 2010). The protozoan's life
cycle consists of a cystic phase which is resistant, a dormant biflagellate phase, and the dangerous
trophozoite phase. This species duplicates by binary fission in the trophozoite stage which is the
only proven form when N. fowleri is infectious, visibly granulated and has one nucleus ("General
Information. Parasites," 2017).
Discovered by Dr. Fowler in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The waterborne ailment that patients succumb to after inhaling N. fowleri was termed Primary
Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) by Butt in 1966 "in order to distinguish this central nervous
system invasion from other secondary invasions" such as the intestinal amoebae Entamoeba
histolytica. (Fero 2010). Once enclosed in the brain enormous cell destruction commences and the
parasite causes massive inflammation. When in the feeding trophozoite phase, necrosis is inevitable
while it emits proteins which allow for the disintegration of the myelin sheaths protective coating.
The bodies natural immune responses fail rapidly against the amoeba once it releases its cytotoxic
molecules. After as short as one week the patient may fall into a coma from lack of intracranial
space to allow for inflammation and edema accompanied by deadly herniation (Pugh & Levy 2016)
Once initially infected with the parasite, the symptoms of its destruction can easily be mistaken for a
severe flu or meningitis caused by bacteria similar to Streptococcus pneumonia or Haemophilus
influenzae (General Information. Parasites 2017). Within a week a multitude of warning signs can
include heightened body temperature, stiff neck, migraines, sore throat, lack of eating, lack of
balance, vomiting, a change in mental status,

Prevention And Control Of Amoebic Dysentery
Prevention and control of Amoebic dysentery necessitate taking many approaches depending on
resources. Moreover, the involvement of national and international programs to deal with sanitation,
food and water supply is of paramount importance. At the core of any preventive program there
should be concrete efforts to improve environmental sanitation and proper disposal of fecal matter.
However, these two factors will remain a challenge for impoverished communities that lack
infrastructure, sewage and drainage systems. International organizations and foreign governments,
given resources and experience, can play crucial roles in mitigating the environmental factor. Local
governments should be encouraged to spend more on sanitation. At the present, the medical staff
plays the most prominent role in the prevention and control of Amoebiasis in impoverished
countries. Albeit their role is confined to diagnosis and treatment. Usually the paramedic at a
community clinic or a medical center is the forefront in the fight. Upon recognition of the disease
based on symptoms, they refer patients for a local hospitals or sometimes hand out medication
themselves. Laboratories in many developing countries depend on microscopy and culture for the
diagnosis of Amoebiasis. However, due to morphological similarities between E. Histolytica and
other non–pathogenic Entamoeba types misdiagnoses are likely. Most of the newer more sensitive
and specific tests are do not exist in

Amoebic Dysentery: Riley Bygraves
Amoebic Dysentery – Riley Bygraves The word 'dysentery' is used to describe two different kinds
of stomach illnesses, both of which result in an inflammation of intestines along with very severe
and bloody diarrhea. Amoebic Dysentery is caused by an internal protozoan (Entamoeba histolytica)
that has two forms: the cyst form is its infective form and is spherical in shape with refractile walls.
The other form is the trophozoite form which is it mobile form and has a diameter 15–30
micrometers. According to Medline Plus, about 50 million people get Amoebic Dysentery every
year around the world, and approximately 40 000 – 50 000 die of Amoebic Dysentery. In 1875,
Fedor LÖsch described the first proven case of amoebic dysentery in St Petersburg, ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The trophozoites will erode the intestinal wall and move into the blood stream. When in the blood
stream it can target other organs. Such as the liver, lungs and rarely the brain. A severe untreated
case of Amoebic Dysentery can cause Hepatitis. Currently there is no cure or vaccine of Amoebic
Dysentery, in the manner in which nearly everyone is vaccinated against Polio. No one should get
Amoebic Dysentery as long as people don't get Polio. The Vaccine in effect will therefore become a
cure. Minimal research is being taken place in order to find a cure for amoebic dysentery but they
are trying to find if current drugs used for other purposes are able to help prevent Amoebic
Dysentery. There is an increased risk in developing countries because of poor sanitation levels.
Areas with high rates of Amoebic Dysentery include India, Africa, Mexico, and parts of Central and
South America. The overall prevalence of Amoebic Dysentery may be as high as 50% in some areas.
It is recommended that you avoid drinking untreated water in endemic areas and uncooked food,
such as fruit and

Diarrhoea Research Paper
Diarrhoea Diarrhoea is a killer disease is young children. One in four deaths in children under the
age of 5 is estimated to be due to diarrhoea. It is the passage of loose, liquid or watery stool. In
many regions, diarrhoea is defined as passage of three or more loose or watery stool, in 1980 in the
developing countries, an estimated 5 million children under 5 years of age–about 10 every minute–
died as a consequence of diarrhoea! disease. These deaths were an outcome of the some 1000
million episodes that occurred among the 338 million children in this age group and were
undoubtedly more frequent poorer families (WHO). In the year2002, 15.2% of under–five years of
age became prey of by diarrhoea, NFHS–2 data highlights morbidity profile of ... Show more
Most episodes of acute diarrhoea recover or are self–limiting, within 3–7 days. More than 75% of all
diarrhoeal episodes in the community are acute watery episodes. * Dysentry – This is diarrhoea with
visible blood and mucus in the faeces. The presence of blood may also be accompanied with
abdominal cramps, fever, anorexia and rapid weight loss. Shigellae group of organisms produce
dysentery. * Persistent diarrhoea – An acute episode of watery diarrhoea or dysentery which lasts for
more than 14 days in classified as persistent diarrhoea. It is because of persistent colonization of
microbes in small intestine due to recurrent intestinal infection or due to protein energy malnutrition,
related immunity or defence mechanism and/or dietary allergies and carbohydrate intolerance.
Incidence of persistent diarrhoeas is around 5%, i.e. 5% of acute diarrhoeas may persist beyond two
weeks. Protozoal infections with Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica and inadequate
treatment of diarrhoea are other important causes of persistent

The Economic Impact Of Amoebic Dysentery
There are no definitive metrics on the economic impact of amoebic dysentery. The disease mostly
afflicts children in farming communities whose source of drinking water are streams, rivers and
ponds. Knowledge of the economic cost of diarrheal diseases in the developing countries, on the
other hand, offers rough estimates of the cost of amoebic dysentery. It worth mentioning that about
40% of the diarrheal diseases in the developing countries is attributable to amoebic dysentery
according to a paper presented at the 28th African Health Sciences Congress, Mauritius, July, 2008.
A study done at a Dr. George Mukhari Hospital, a tertiary level hospital, Gauteng, South Africa,
estimates the total hospital and professional cost ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The latter, facilitated by specific lectin, adhere to and colonize the intestinal mucosa. The usual
incubation period for Amoebiasis is about 10 days, but it can range from a few days to years.
Patients present with cramping abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, weight loss and fever. Fulminant
colitis with systemic manifestations is rare. It presents with a sudden onset of severe bloody
diarrhea, abdominal pain, and peritonitis with fever. young age, pregnancy, corticosteroid and
impaired immunity are disposing factors. Life threatening intestinal perforation and toxic
Megacolon may ensue, necessitating surgical intervention. Mortality from fulminant colitis may
reach 50 %. Untreated intestinal Amoebiasis may proceed to chronic colitis presenting with
recurring bloody diarrhea and abdominal discomfort. From the intestinal mucosa E. Histolytica
trophozoites follow two paths. Some of them develop into cysts and get excreted in the feces to be
recycled while others invade the intestinal mucosa and enter the bloodstream. Blood circulation
enables the parasite to disseminate, invade and destroy the liver, lung, and other organs. Breakdown
of tissues is a result of both cytolysis and apoptosis. The former is carried out by Amoebapores, a
group of peptides secreted by the organism that are capable of creating holes in the cell walls. The
parasite induces apoptosis through both a1 receptor pathway and the

Spironucleus Mesnili Trophozoites
1. Describe the characteristics of the Retortamonadida and Diplomonadida orders. Both
Retortamonadida and Diplomonadida lack mitochondria as well as a Golgi apparatus, which are also
known as dictyosomes. Retortamonadida and Diplomonadida also possess a recurrent flagella within
a groove and can occupy low oxygen environments. Both orders of Retortamonadida and
Diplomonadida are commonly found within humans.
2. Describe the morphology of Chilomastix mesnili trophozoites. In the cyst stage of Chilomastix
mesnili, the cyst has a thick wall and is shaped similar to a pear or lemon. It is usually found in the
stool. The cyst has a single nucleus located closer to the anterior end as well as other cytoplasmic
organelles. During the trophozoite ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There is a fifth flagellum that curves backward along the undulating membrane. There is an
accessory filament that runs along the undulating membrane. The costa arises from the kinetosome
and the parabasal body lies near the nucleus. An axostyle tube is formed by a sheet of microtubules
and has three parts. The anterior portion called the capitulum, the middle part called the trunk, and
the posterior regions called the caudal tip. The pelta is made up of microtubules that supports the
paraflagellar canal, which is a shallow depression from which all flagella emerge. The trophozoites
also contain microbodies also known as the paracostal

The Apicomplexan Cyclospora
The apicomplexan Cyclospora cayetanensis is an obligate intracellular protozoan that infects human
and causing diarrhea worldwide (Lainson 2005; Ortega and Sanchez, 2010) leading to a significant
morbidity and mortality in both immunocompromised and immunocompetent hosts (Legua and Seas
2013). Cyclsosporiosis patients may be gastrointestinal symptomatic or asymptomatic and/ or
having extraintestinal constitutional symptoms such as weight loss, fever, chills, muscle aches, joint
aches, generalized body aches, headache, or fatigue (Mansfield and Gajadhar 2004). Fecally
contaminated water, food or soil with sporulated oocysts of C. cayetanensis are the main sources of
infection transmission (Herwaldt, 2000; Crist et al., 2004). The host specificity ... Show more
2015). Also, silver oxides NPs induced strong anti–parasitic activities against malaria and filariasis
vectors larvae and Ixodidae (Marimuthu et al. 2011). However, MgO has some advantages that prior
it to other metals (Asgharzadehahmadi et al., 2013) such as nonmutagenic effect, good stability and
a normal component of the human body (Sawai 2003; Krishnamoorthy et al.,

A Report On The Disease
Introduction The disease discussed in this article is eumycetoma, a chronic granulomatous
subcutaneous infectious disease that is endemic in the "mycetoma belt" of 30 degrees North to 15
degrees South of the equator (Hellemond et al., 2013). Sudan has the highest country–wide
prevalence of eumycetoma, with 2% of the population being infected in the endemic villages in the
Gezira area (Ahmed et al., 2004). Although mycetoma can be caused by various bacteria and fungi
agents, the majority of mycetoma cases in Sudan, which is around 70%, are caused by the fungus
Madurella mycetomatis (eumycetoma) (Hellemond et al., 2013). Nonetheless, while most people
living in the endemic areas have been exposed to the fungi, only a few actually develop ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Schistosomiasis can even convert an already established Th1–response to a Th–2 response.
Furthermore, in eumycetoma endemic countries schistosomiasis is often a chronic disease that lasts
the duration of a person's life, and this could lead to a persistent Th2–type immune response
(Hellemond et al., 2013).Thus, if Schistosomiasis predisposes the development of eumycetoma,
efforts to eradicate Schistosoma in a population could also lower the number of eumycetoma cases.
If this is the case, then intervention strategies could be developed to target both Schistosoma and
eumycetoma in a population. Hypothesis The primary association examined in this study is the
relationship between a Th2–type immune response and the susceptibility to eumycetoma.
Hellemond et al. (2013) have previously shown that eumycetoma patients increased concentrations
of IL–10 circulating in their bodies. Thus, it is hypothesized that an infection of schistosomiasis,
which induces a Th2–type response that is accompanied by increased levels of IL–10, might
increase the susceptibility of a patient to eumycetoma. However, toxoplasmosis, which induces a
Th1–type immune response, should not be associated with increased susceptibility to eumycetoma.
Methods and Materials Hellemond et al. (2013) collected 84 serum samples from the endemic areas
of Sudan between 2001 and 2008. Of the 84 samples collected, there were 53 from

Acute Diarrhoeal Diseases
DISCUSSION
Acute diarrhoeal diseases among the children are one of the most important problems affecting
children in the world, reducing their well–being and creating considerable demand for health
services (WHO, 2010). Diarrhoeal diseases are leading cause of preventable death, especially
among children aged under five in developing countries. Diarrhoea is defined as a child with loose
or watery stool for three or more times during a 24–hour period. The frequency and severity of
diarrhoea are provoked by lack of access to enough clean water and sanitary throwing away of
human waste, insufficient feeding practices and hand washing; poor housing circumstances and lack
of access to sufficient and reasonable health care (Gerald et al., 2001). Escherichia coli (EPEC) is a
main cause of diarrhoea in infants and children in addition to pathogens such as Salmonella,
Shigella, Yersinia, Vibrio, Campylobacter sp., Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia lamblia in
developing countries (Ahmed et al., 2009). Diarrhoeagenic E. coli is the major cause of
gastroenteritis in children in the developing world and is associated with high resistance intensity to
antibiotics (Ochoa et al., 2009).
Improper recommendation of antibiotics provoked resistance and increased infectious disease
mortality not only in developing countries but also in developed countries. Aging populations alter
in behaviour and a decline in the development of new antibiotics aggravated a fading situation
(Dandekar and

The New England Journal Of Medicine Essay
But sexual transmission was diagnosed in Ohio in a list of male sex coadjutor of one male who had
experienced to Puerto Rico.27. In any accident, it 's decisive to give each man who has see with one
instruction about lesbianism, bisexuality and the manifestation–out procedure, sexual traduce,
sexual addiction, kindred–of–rise spring, and manner malady that could assist to the solicit to have
sex with men. The New England Journal of Medicine described one division in San Francisco where
38 percent of the man who acknowledged any one contactor within the foregone five donkey's years
experiment positive for this virus while none of the exclusively heterosexual men standard positive.
Most men who had used a trembler in the exceeding relate custom during onanism (86.2%). Men
who epitomize HIV/AIDS through heterosexual coitus or drip stupefy necessity once in a while
parade this malignancy. "Sex" is undefined. When they are, many of them habit refuge. Although
their inner and excitable height compare that of the commencing tier of manifestation out, blithe and
slang one go on to unfold a merry or a jocular likeness, whereas these one don 't. When lineage
screeners implore men if they 've ever had sexuality with another man, what do they denote?
Though the U.K. The exactness is that many men who have coitus with man aren 't gay or even
slang. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recognized a 1991 outbreak of Hepatitis A in New York
City, in which 78 percent of tom respondents

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