Qualitative research methods were developed in the social sciences to enable researchers to study social and cultural phenomena.

1. Dr. Veena Shahi
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Vaishali

2.  Qualitative research methods were developed
in the social sciences to enable researchers to
study social and cultural phenomena.
Examples of qualitative methods are action
research, case study research and
ethnography.
 Qualitative data sources include observation
and participant observation (fieldwork),
interviews and questionnaires, documents
and texts, and the researcher's impressions
and reactions (Myers 2009).

3.  Case Study Research
 Ethnography
 Grounded Theory

4.  It is study of a case( or perhaps a small
number of cases) in detail, using
appropriate methods with objective to
develop full understanding of case
 The case may be an individual, or a role, or
small group, or organization, or a
community, or nation.
 It may also be a decision ,or a policy, or a
process, or an incident or some events
 The case study is more a strategy than a
method.

5.  Yin(1984:23): A case study is an emperical
inquiry that-
o Investigates a contemporary phenomenon
within its real-life context, when
o The boundaries between phenomenon and
its context are not clearly evident, and in
which
o Multiple sources of evidence are used.

6.  Brewer and Hunter (1989) focuses on six
types of units for case study research i.e.
individuals; attributes of individuals; action
and interactions; residues and artefacts of
behavior; settings,incidents and events;
and collectivities.
Aim of case studies:
 To understand the case in depth, and in its
natural setting,recognizing its complexity
and its context.
 To preserve and understand the wholeness
and unity of the case with holistic focus.

7. Distinguishing characteristics:
(yin,1984)
 It attempts to examine a contemporary
phenomenon in its real-life context;
 Expecially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident;
 It is different from: experiment and
historical analysis.

8.  The case is a ‘bounded system’: it has
boundaries between case and the context,
the researcher needs to identify and
describe the boundaries of the case as
clearly as possible.
 The case is a case of something: it needs
stressing, to give focus to the research
,and to make the logic and strategy of the
research clear.

9.  There is an explicit attempt to preserve the
wholeness, unity and integrity of the case.
The word ‘holistic’ is often used.
 Multiple sources of data and multiple data
collection methods are likely to be used,
typically in naturalistic setting.
Observations, in natural settings,
interviews, and narrative reports used as
field methods.
 Questionnaires and numerical data may
also use.

10.  Data are collected by multiple means
 One or few entities (person, group or
organization) are examined
 The complexity of the unit is studied
intensively
 The investigator should have a receptive
attitude towards exploration
 No experimental controls or manipulation
are involved

11.  Phenomenon is examined in a natural
setting
 The investigator may not specify the set of
dependent and independent variables in
advance
 The results derived depend heavily on the
integrative powers of the investigator
 Changes in site selection and data
collection methods could take place as the
investigator develops new hypotheses
 Useful to study ”how” and ”why” questions
 The focus is on contemporary events

12.  A method of research/a research strategy
(not linked to part. method of data
collection)
 Exploratory case study
◦ To develop pertinent hypothesis and
propositions for futher inquiry
◦ ”what are the ways of making schools
effective?”
 Descriptive case study
◦ To describe the incidence or prevalence of
a phenomenon
◦ Es. Political attitudes
 Explanatory case study
◦ To trace operational links over time

13.  Intrinsic case study
o where the study is undertaken because the
researcher wants a better understanding of this
particular case.
 Instrumental case study
o where a particular case is examined to give
insight into an issue, or refine a theory.
 Collective case study
o Where the instrumental case study is extended to
cover several cases, to learn more about the
phenomenon, population or general condition.
 First two cases are single case studies (focus is
within case).where third involves multiple cases
(focus is both within and across cases).

14.  five components of research design:
1. A study's questions
2. Its propositions, if any
3. Its unit(s) of analysis
4. The logic linking the data to the
propositions
5. The criteria for interpreting the findings

15. ◦ Ask good question
◦ Be a good listner
◦ Be adaptive and flexible (new =
opportunity; not always as planned)
◦ Have a firm grasp on the issue (relevant
events and information)
 Not mechanical recording
 Recognize deviations, contradictions
◦ Be unbiased by preconceived notions
 Be open to contrary findings

16.  Documentation
 Archivial records
 Interviews
 Direct observations
 Participant-observation
 Physical artefacts (technological devices, tools
or instruments, a work of art)

17.  Be clear on what the case is, including
identification of its boundaries
 Be clear on the need for the study of the case, and
on the general purposes of case study
 Translate that general purpose into specific
purposes and research question identify the overall
strategy of the case study, especially whether it is
one case or multiple cases, and why
 Show what data will be collected, from whom and
why
 Show how the data will be analysed.

18.  Strength:
o provide rich, descriptive insights into
processes of development
 Limitations:
o May be biased by researcher’s theoretical
preferences; findings cannot be applied to
individuals other than the subject.

19. “ETHNOGRAPHY”

20.  Ethnographic designs are qualitative research
procedures for describing, analyzing, and
interpreting a culture-sharing group’s shared
patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language
that develop over time.
 Ethnography is a method in which the
researcher attempts to understand the unique
values and social processes of a culture or a
distinct social group by living with its
members and taking field notes for an
extended period of time.

21. Ethnography is defined concisely by
Fetterman (1998) as "the art and
science of describing a group or
culture."
Goetz and LeCompte (1984) say that
ethnographies are "analytic
descriptions or reconstructions of
intact cultural scenes and groups ...
(that) recreate for the reader the
shared beliefs, practices, artifacts, folk
knowledge and behaviors of some
group of people"

22. Ethnography describes the behaviors,
values, beliefs, and practices of the
participants in a given cultural setting.
Ethnography involves cultural analysis.
Analyzing a culture means not simply
recounting behaviors and events, but
inferring the cultural roles that guide
behaviors and events. The intention of
ethnography is to capture the everyday,
the unwritten laws, conventions and
customs that govern the behavior of
persons and sub-groups within a culture.

23. Anthropologists always study human
behavior in terms of cultural context.
o Particular individuals, customs,
institutions, or events are of
anthropological interest as they relate
to a generalized description of the ‘way
of life’ of socially interacting group
o Yet culture itself is always an
abstraction, regardless of whether
referring to culture in general or to the
culture of a specific social
group.(wolcott,1988:188)

24. Study of a group helps you
understand a larger issue
Have a culture-sharing group to study
Want a day-to-day picture
Long-term access to culture-sharing
group

25. Ethnography has been shaped by
cultural anthropology with an
emphasis on writing about culture
1928 Mead study of childbearing,
adolescence, and influence of
culture on personality in Samoa
1920’s - 1950’s Single case
emphasis at University of Chicago

26. 1980’s Educational Ethnographies
1997 publication of Writing Culture
that highlighted two major issues
ocrisis of representation: how
ethnographers interpret the groups
they are studying
ocrisis of “legitimacy”: standards do not
come from “normal science.” Studies
must be evaluated by standards within
the participants’ historical, cultural,
influences and interactive forces of
race, gender and class

27. Narrates study in the third person
voice reporting what is observed
Researcher reports objective data free
from personal bias, political goals or
judgment
Researcher produces the participants’
views through closely edited quotes
and has final word on how the culture
is to be interpreted and presented.
1.Realist ethnography

28. Definition: an in-depth exploration
of a bounded system (time, place,
physical boundaries)
Subject for case studies
• individual or several individuals
• series of steps that form a sequence of
activities
Researcher develops understanding
of the case by collecting multiple
forms of data
Researcher locates the “case” or
“cases” within their larger context
2.Case study

29. Intrinsic Case Study
Unusual Case Study an intrinsic, unusual case.
Instrumental Case Study
Issue Case Study a case that provides insight into
an issue or theme
Multiple Instrumental Case Study
(also called a Collective Case Study)
Case
Case
Case
Issue
Study several cases that
provide insight into an
issue (or theme)

30. o Used by politically minded people
o Advocate for the emancipation of
marginalized groups
o Seek to change society
o Identify and celebrate research bias: all
research is value laden
o Challenge status-quo and ask “Why is it so?”
o Create literal dialogue with participants
3.Critical Ethnography

31.  It is study to understand the cultural and
symbolic aspect of behavior and the context
of that behavior, whatever the specific focus
of research.(it may be either some group of
people, or a case,(or small number of cases)
focusing on culturally significant behavior.
 When studying a group of people,
ethnography starts from the assumption
that the shared cultural meanings of the
group are crucial to understanding its
behavior. The ethnographer’s task is to
uncover that meaning.

32.  The ethnographer is sensitive to the meaning
that behavior, action events and contexts have
in the eyes of the people involved. Thus it is
needed the insider’s perspective on those
events, action, and contexts.
 The group or the case will be studied in its
natural setting. A true ethnography involves the
researcher becoming a part of that natural
setting.
 Ethnography is likely to be an unfolding and
evolving short of study, rather than
prestructured. it will not normally be clear what
to study in depth until some field work has
been done.

33.  Ethnography, from data collection point of
view, it is eclectic,(free) not restricted. Any
technique might be used, but fieldwork is
always central.
 Ethnographic data collection will be
prolonged and repetitive for both a general
and specific reason-
o The general reason is that the reality being
studied.
o The specific reason is that the ethnographic
record needs to be comprehensive and
detailed, and focused again and again on
things that happens.

34.  Identify intent and type of design and relate
intent to the research problem
 Discuss approval and access considerations
 Collect appropriate data emphasizing time
in field, multiple sources, collaboration
 Analyze and interpret data within a design
 Write report consistent with your design

35.  For making our interpretations real. In
building interpretations, we use the
traditional ethnographic methods of
participant observation, semi-structured
interviews, and document analysis, as well
as some less commonly employed methods:
 Activity Analysis - Interviewing members
individually and collectively about their
participation in activities, and observing
them as they participate in those activities.

36. Talking Diaries - Participants describe
important events in their lives as if they
were reading diaries from a certain time
period(Levinson 1996).
Personal Documentaries - Participants take
pictures of important events in their lives
and then narrate them orally or in written
form. While usually done individually, we
have also had success doing personal
documentaries in pairs.
Researcher Biographies - A form of data
collection in which one member of our team
follows the participant through his/her day
to develop a day-in-the-life documentary.

37.  Strength:
provides a more complete and accurate
description than can be derived from a
single observational visits, interview, or
questionnaire.
 Limitation:
o presence of observer may influence
behavior in unnatural ways;
o may be biased by researcher’s values and
theoretical preferences;
o findings cannot be applied to individuals
and settings other than the one’s studies.

38. THE QUALITATIVE
INTERVIEW- “A METHOD OF
COLLECTING DATA”

39.  Virtually all methodologies are reliant on the
collection of credible data
 The first step in any form of data collection is
gaining access

40. Your ability to gain access will improve if
you:
◦ do your homework
◦ act professionally
◦ give something back

41.  Interviewing: A method of data collection
that involves researchers asking respondents
basically open ended questions of
respondents
 Qualitative interview can be defined as a
conversation that has the following
characteristics:
o It is elicited by the interviewer;

42. o A considerable number of subjects are
interviewed;
o It has cognitive objective;
o It is guided by the interviewer;
o It is based on a flexible, non-standardized
pattern of questioning.
o Interviewees are selected on the basis of a
data-gathering plan;

43.  Interviews are capable of generating both
standardized quantifiable data, and more
in-depth qualitative data
 However, the complexities of people and
the complexities of communication can
create many opportunities for
miscommunication and misinterpretation

44.  Interviews can range from fixed to free:
oStructured: Uses pre-established questions,
asked in a predetermined order, using a
standard mode of delivery.
oSemi-structured: As the name suggests, these
interviews are neither fully fixed nor fully free,
and are perhaps best seen as flexible
oUnstructured: Attempts to draw out
information, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs
around particular themes, ideas, and issues
without the aid of predetermined questions

45.  Strength of structured interview:
Standardized method of asking questions
permits comparison of subjects responses
and efficient data collection and scoring.
 Limitation of structured interview:
it does not yield the same depth of
information as a clinical interview; responses
still subject to inaccurate reporting.

46.  Clinical interview:
A method in which the researcher uses
flexible, open ended questions to probe for
the subject’s point of view.
 Clinical interview has two major strengths:
• It permit subjects to display their thoughts in
terms that are as close as they think in every
day life.
• It can provide large amount of information in
fairly brief period of time.

47.  Interviews also vary in their level of
formality:
oFormal: A formal interview is just that,
formal. Perhaps the best analogy is the
classic job interview that includes: the
office setting; the formal handshake;
appropriate attire; order and structure; and
best professional behavior.
oInformal: An informal interview attempts to
ignore the rules and roles associated with
interviewing in an attempt to establish
rapport, gain trust, and create a more
natural environment conducive to open
and honest communication.

48.  Interviewing can be done one on one, or in
groups:
oOne on one: Most interviews are an
interaction between the interviewer and a
single interviewee. It is thought that ‘one on
one’ allows the researcher control over the
process and the interviewee the freedom to
express their thoughts
oGroup: Group interviews involve interviewing
more than one person at a time. This can be
done in a formal structured way, or may
involve a less structured process where the
researcher acts more as a moderator or
facilitator than an interviewer

49.  Conducting an interview that can generate
relevant and credible data requires:
◦ thorough planning
◦ considered preparation of an interview schedule
and recording system
◦ sufficient piloting
◦ reflexive modification
◦ the actual interview
◦ and appropriate analysis

50.  Two important considerations in interviewing
are:
o Presentation of self
o Preliminaries
• Be on time!
• Set up and check equipment
• Establish rapport
• Introduce the study
• Explain ethics

51. a. Starting the Interview
o It is important to explain the purpose of the
interview, and to assure the informant of
anonymity.
o It is also important to emphasize that the
interviewer is trying to learn from
informant.
o Permission should be obtained before
using a tape recorder or taking notes.

52. b. Letting the Informant Lead
o In the Interactive Interview the idea is to keep the
conversation focused on a topic, but, at the same
time, give the informant room to define the
content of the discussion.
c. Probing
o The key to successful interviewing is learning
how to probe. That is, how to stimulate
the informant to produce more information, but
doing so without injecting yourself too

53. d. Language:
o Language play an additional role in the
interview by supplying cues to both
interviewer and respondent as to the kind of
person that the other is.
o If interviewer and respondent speak the same
language, they are more likely to have had
similar backgrounds and experience and are
more likely to be capable of understanding
each other (kahn and cannel,1967:111).

54. Listen more than talk
The main game in interviewing is to
facilitate an interviewee’s ability to
answer. This involves:
◦ easing respondents into the interview
◦ asking strategic questions
◦ prompting and probing appropriately
◦ keeping it moving
◦ being true to your role
◦ winding it down when the time is right

55. Recording responses can be done in a number of
ways; you may need to trial a couple of recording
methods in order to assess what is best for you.
◦ Note taking:- this can range from highly structured
to open and interpretive.
◦ Audio recording- audio recording allows you to
preserve raw data for review at a later date.
◦ Video recording- video taping offers the added
bonus of being able to record visual cues, but is
more intrusive; is prone to more technical
difficulties; and can generate data that is hard to
analyse.

56. Thank you