Fly Ash is a major issue because electricity generation in the country would remain predominantly
coal-based for a couple of coming decades. Current annual production of Fly Ash is about 131MT/year and is
expected to increase to 300-400 MT/year up to 2016. Some of the problems associated with Fly ash are large
area of land required for disposal and toxicity. Fly ash, being treated as waste and a source of air and water
pollution till recent past, is in fact a resource material and has also proven its worth over a period of time. Fly
ash is having potential for gainful utilization till is put to right use. It has now emerged not only as a resource
material but also as an environment savior. Though the fly ash utilization is old practices in roads & building
construction, there is still hesitation to adopt fly ash as a pavement & Building material for various reasons.
This paper presents different ways of using Fly ash in various Components of Road crust Construction and its
subsequent environmental effects. It also discusses the Government Policy in maximizing utilization of fly ash.
Utilization of fly ash as filler in bituminous mix.Sahinsha Badsha
This document discusses using fly ash as an alternative filler in bituminous mixes. It aims to reduce costs by replacing conventional fillers like cement. The objectives are to study fly ash's use in road construction and evaluate modified Marshall properties. A literature review found that fly ash improved stability, strength retention in water, and acted as an anti-stripping agent. The document outlines the materials used - aggregates, bitumen, fillers like cement and fly ash. It details the methodology of conducting Marshall tests to determine properties like stability, flow, density and voids for mixes with different fillers. The conclusion is that these tests will identify the most cost-effective mix.
The document discusses using fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants. There are two classes of fly ash - Class F contains less than 7% lime and requires a cementing agent, while Class C has self-cementing properties due to more than 20% lime. The document explores the physical, chemical and geotechnical properties of fly ash. It finds that replacing cement with fly ash in concrete can improve strength, durability and reduce costs and CO2 emissions compared to traditional concrete. Common uses of fly ash include concrete, bricks/blocks, road construction and mine filling.
This document discusses fly ash, which is a byproduct of coal combustion that can be used in concrete production. It has three main points:
1. Fly ash can replace a portion of cement in concrete, improving properties like strength and durability while also reducing costs and environmental impact. Extensive research has shown fly ash improves long-term strength and density.
2. India produces around 75 million tons of fly ash per year but only utilizes around 5% of it due to lack of processing infrastructure. Increased fly ash use would help address disposal issues.
3. High-volume fly ash concrete mixes cement with 50-60% fly ash, requiring superplasticizers for workability but offering benefits like reduced heat
Protection of environment by the use of flyPREMKUMAR
This document discusses the use of fly ash in concrete. It begins with an introduction and overview of fly ash, including its origin as a byproduct of coal combustion in thermal power plants. It then covers the types and properties of fly ash, how it improves the properties and performance of concrete when partially replacing cement, and the benefits this provides like reduced costs, improved strength and durability. The document also addresses environmental benefits and concludes that fly ash concrete is better suited than normal concrete for applications like road construction.
Utilisation of Fly Ash in Cement ConcretePramey Zode
This document discusses the use of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in thermal power plants. Using fly ash in concrete can reduce costs, improve workability and durability, and provide environmental benefits by reducing the amount of cement needed. The document examines the chemical properties of fly ash and how it reacts with cement. It recommends using fly ash to replace up to 50% of cement in high-volume fly ash concrete, which can further improve sustainability and concrete performance.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants. There are two classes of fly ash: Class C and Class F. Class C fly ash contains more than 20% lime and is produced from younger lignite and subbituminous coal, while Class F contains less than 20% lime and is produced from harder anthracite and bituminous coal. Over 130 million tons of fly ash are produced annually in the US alone. Fly ash can be used in concrete, soil stabilization, flowable fill, waste management, and more to support more sustainable construction practices.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE SUBJECTED TO ELEVATED ...Umer Farooq
Fly ash is a finely divided waste product resulting from the combustion of pulverized coal in power plants.
It contains large amounts of silica, alumina and small amount of unburned carbon, which pollutes environment.
It is grey in colour and alkaline in nature.
The particle size ranges between 5-120 microns
Utilization of fly ash as filler in bituminous mix.Sahinsha Badsha
This document discusses using fly ash as an alternative filler in bituminous mixes. It aims to reduce costs by replacing conventional fillers like cement. The objectives are to study fly ash's use in road construction and evaluate modified Marshall properties. A literature review found that fly ash improved stability, strength retention in water, and acted as an anti-stripping agent. The document outlines the materials used - aggregates, bitumen, fillers like cement and fly ash. It details the methodology of conducting Marshall tests to determine properties like stability, flow, density and voids for mixes with different fillers. The conclusion is that these tests will identify the most cost-effective mix.
The document discusses using fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants. There are two classes of fly ash - Class F contains less than 7% lime and requires a cementing agent, while Class C has self-cementing properties due to more than 20% lime. The document explores the physical, chemical and geotechnical properties of fly ash. It finds that replacing cement with fly ash in concrete can improve strength, durability and reduce costs and CO2 emissions compared to traditional concrete. Common uses of fly ash include concrete, bricks/blocks, road construction and mine filling.
This document discusses fly ash, which is a byproduct of coal combustion that can be used in concrete production. It has three main points:
1. Fly ash can replace a portion of cement in concrete, improving properties like strength and durability while also reducing costs and environmental impact. Extensive research has shown fly ash improves long-term strength and density.
2. India produces around 75 million tons of fly ash per year but only utilizes around 5% of it due to lack of processing infrastructure. Increased fly ash use would help address disposal issues.
3. High-volume fly ash concrete mixes cement with 50-60% fly ash, requiring superplasticizers for workability but offering benefits like reduced heat
Protection of environment by the use of flyPREMKUMAR
This document discusses the use of fly ash in concrete. It begins with an introduction and overview of fly ash, including its origin as a byproduct of coal combustion in thermal power plants. It then covers the types and properties of fly ash, how it improves the properties and performance of concrete when partially replacing cement, and the benefits this provides like reduced costs, improved strength and durability. The document also addresses environmental benefits and concludes that fly ash concrete is better suited than normal concrete for applications like road construction.
Utilisation of Fly Ash in Cement ConcretePramey Zode
This document discusses the use of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in thermal power plants. Using fly ash in concrete can reduce costs, improve workability and durability, and provide environmental benefits by reducing the amount of cement needed. The document examines the chemical properties of fly ash and how it reacts with cement. It recommends using fly ash to replace up to 50% of cement in high-volume fly ash concrete, which can further improve sustainability and concrete performance.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants. There are two classes of fly ash: Class C and Class F. Class C fly ash contains more than 20% lime and is produced from younger lignite and subbituminous coal, while Class F contains less than 20% lime and is produced from harder anthracite and bituminous coal. Over 130 million tons of fly ash are produced annually in the US alone. Fly ash can be used in concrete, soil stabilization, flowable fill, waste management, and more to support more sustainable construction practices.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HIGH VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE SUBJECTED TO ELEVATED ...Umer Farooq
Fly ash is a finely divided waste product resulting from the combustion of pulverized coal in power plants.
It contains large amounts of silica, alumina and small amount of unburned carbon, which pollutes environment.
It is grey in colour and alkaline in nature.
The particle size ranges between 5-120 microns
Strength characteristics of flyash concreteTHOTA AKHIL
This research work describes the feasibility of using the thermal industry waste in concrete as partial replacement of cement. The utilization of fly-ash in concrete as partial replacement of cement is gaining immense importance today, mainly on account of the improvement in the long term durability of concrete combined with ecological benefits. The cement has been replaced by fly ash accordingly in the range of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, by concrete mix M20.The experiments will be conducted for compressive strength by using C.T.M machine 7 and 28 days of curing
why we use fly ash in concrete , production of fly ash, how it improve the fresh and harden properties of concrete
how it react when mix with concrete.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants. It can be used as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Using fly ash provides benefits such as increased long-term strength, improved workability through its spherical particles, reduced permeability, and increased durability. Fly ash works as a pozzolanic material, where it reacts with calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration to produce additional cementitious compounds. Up to 30% of cement can typically be replaced by fly ash in concrete, providing technical and environmental benefits.
This document discusses the use of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. It provides background on fly ash, including its generation from coal combustion and characteristics. Fly ash is classified as either Class F or Class C based on its chemical composition. The document outlines experimental programs conducted to study the effects of varying fly ash replacement levels on the workability and compressive strength of concrete. Test results showed workability decreased with higher fly ash content, while compressive strength increased up to 10% replacement but decreased at 15% replacement or more. The conclusion is that fly ash replacement of up to 10% is effective but may require plasticizers at higher replacement levels.
Fly Ash as a Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete and Durability Study o...IJERD Editor
This document presents research on the use of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Concrete cubes were produced with 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% cement replacement by fly ash. The cubes were cured in water as well as 1%, 3%, and 5% sulfuric acid solutions. Compressive strength was tested at 28, 60, and 90 days. Results showed that cubes with 10% fly ash replacement had the highest strength when cured in water and acid solutions. Fly ash concrete also demonstrated improved durability in acidic environments compared to normal concrete. In general, fly ash concrete performed better with increasing curing time and showed potential to enhance concrete durability.
High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete: According to some researchers, more than 30% fly ash by mass (equivalent as 50% by volume) of the cementitious material may be considered enough to classify the mixtures as High-Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) concrete. It is possible to produce sustainable, high performance concrete mixtures with 50% or more cement replacement by fly ash.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion that can be used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete. There are two main classes of fly ash - Class F contains a greater combination of silica, alumina and iron, while Class C has a higher lime content. Fly ash particles fill voids in concrete, improving workability and reducing water requirements. While fly ash concrete has slightly lower early strength, it achieves higher ultimate strength and is more durable due to reduced permeability and alkali-silica reactivity. Using fly ash in concrete provides benefits like reduced heat of hydration, improved pumpability, and environmentally friendly use of an industrial byproduct.
Cement and Concrete: Promise of Fly AshDr J.D. Bapat
The presentation made by Dr J D Bapat illustrates the importance of fly ash utilisation. The slides depict how fly ash is used in cement and concrete to improve its strength and durability.
fly ash and rubber in concrete ( eco-friendly concrete)Koppolu Abishek
This study investigated the effects of partially replacing cement with fly ash and coarse aggregate with rubber chips in concrete. Concrete mixtures were prepared with 0%, 10%, and 20% fly ash replacement of cement and 5% rubber chip replacement of coarse aggregate. Fresh and hardened properties were tested. Test results found that 5% rubber replacement slightly reduced compressive strength compared to normal concrete. However, increasing fly ash content from 10% to 20% improved mechanical properties of the rubberized concrete. Therefore, partial replacement of cement with fly ash and coarse aggregate with rubber chips has potential to produce concrete with comparable strength to normal concrete while utilizing waste materials.
Fly Ash bricks are made of fly ash, lime, gypsum and sand. These can be extensively used in all building constructional activities similar to that of common burnt clay bricks.The fly ash bricks are comparatively lighter in weight and stronger than common clay bricks.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on rice husk ash (RHA). RHA is obtained by burning rice husks between 600-700°C for 2 hours. It is composed primarily of silicon dioxide and can be used to partially replace cement in concrete production. The addition of RHA increases strength and durability by reducing calcium hydroxide levels in concrete. It also reduces efflorescence and susceptibility to chemical and sulfate attacks. Using RHA in concrete can help reduce carbon dioxide emissions from cement production and provides an economic use for the agricultural waste product of rice husks. The seminar outlines the physical and chemical properties of RHA and reviews its advantages and disadvantages when used in concrete.
12 btceng040,fly ash for concrete ppt by RITESHMANI TRIPATHIRiteshmani Tripathi
This document discusses fly ash, a byproduct of coal combustion in coal-fired power plants. It is collected from the flue gases through filtration systems. Fly ash composition can vary but generally contains silicon dioxide, calcium oxide, iron oxide and aluminum oxide. It is classified into Class C and Class F fly ash based on calcium content. The document discusses various uses of fly ash in concrete, bricks, soil stabilization, embankments and its benefits like reduced greenhouse gas emissions and landfill needs. However, it also notes concerns around potential leaching of toxic elements from fly ash.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion that can be used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete. Using fly ash provides environmental benefits by reducing CO2 emissions from cement production and providing an outlet to dispose of the large amounts of fly ash produced annually. Fly ash improves the properties of concrete by increasing workability, reducing water demand, improving strength development over time, and decreasing permeability. The pozzolanic reaction of fly ash with lime from cement hydration leads to increased amounts of calcium silicate hydrate, enhancing the durability of the concrete.
The document summarizes a seminar presentation on fly ash utilization and disposal. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants. It can be utilized in construction materials like concrete and bricks to replace resources like cement, clay, and sand. It can also be used to reclaim land or stabilize soil. However, much of the fly ash currently produced worldwide is disposed of in landfills or ash ponds, which can pollute air, water, and soil if not properly managed. The presentation discusses the composition, types, production, uses, disposal methods, and environmental impacts of fly ash.
Replacement of cement with pozzolanic materialsTHOTA AKHIL
This study reports the result of an experimental investigation carried out to study the effects of fly ash on strength development of mortar and the optimum use of fly ash in mortar.
The document discusses the use of fly ash from coal combustion in power plants. It provides background on fly ash, including its composition, classification into Class F and Class C ashes, and various applications. Some key applications discussed are: use in concrete where fly ash improves workability, strength, and durability; use in road and embankment construction where it provides benefits like lighter weight and higher strength; and use in brick manufacturing where it replaces clay. The document also notes the economic and environmental benefits of utilizing fly ash, such as reducing waste, lowering costs, and decreasing greenhouse gas emissions from cement production.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal burning power plants that contains silica, alumina, and unburned carbon. It poses disposal problems as an industrial waste but can be utilized effectively for various purposes. Fly ash can replace a percentage of Portland cement in concrete production, making the concrete stronger and more durable while reducing greenhouse gas emissions from cement production. India's annual production of fly ash has increased from 116 million tons in 2006-07 to over 150 million tons currently, but only a portion is being utilized, such as in concrete, bricks, road construction, soil stabilization, and as a fill material. Harnessing this underutilized resource could provide significant economic and environmental benefits.
This document investigates replacing cement with rice husk ash in concrete. An experiment was conducted replacing 20% of cement with rice husk ash. The compressive strength at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days with 20% replacement was found to compare favorably to concrete without replacement. Using rice husk ash provides benefits like reducing greenhouse gas emissions and construction costs while utilizing an agricultural waste. The results indicate rice husk ash is a suitable partial replacement for cement in concrete.
Compressive strength variability of brown coal fly ash geopolymer concreteeSAT Publishing House
The document summarizes research investigating the compressive strength variability of geopolymer concrete made with brown coal fly ash as a binder. Testing of six mixes of geopolymer concrete found a large range in 28-day compressive strengths, from 43.81 MPa to 7.21 MPa. Additional chemical analysis found significant variability in the chemical composition of samples from the same brown coal fly ash source, particularly in the silicon dioxide and aluminum oxide contents. This variability is believed to contribute to the variability in compressive strengths and suggests the need for pretreatment and refinement of brown coal fly ash to produce more consistent geopolymer concrete.
Partial replacement of Fine aggreggate by Copper Slag and Cement by Fly Ashsushendhukc
The document summarizes research on replacing fine aggregate with copper slag and cement with fly ash in concrete. It provides background on copper slag and fly ash, including their composition and how they are produced. It then reviews several previous studies that investigated replacing fine aggregate with copper slag at levels from 5-100% and cement with fly ash at 20-60%. The studies found that compressive, tensile and flexural strength generally increased up to around 40% replacement. The document aims to further study the effects of these replacements on concrete strength and properties.
Bitumin mixes for road report documentationkumawat123
This document provides an introduction and overview of bituminous mix design for highway construction. It discusses the objectives of bituminous mix design which are to produce a mix that is strong, durable, resistant to fatigue and deformation, environmentally friendly, and economical. The key constituents of a bituminous mix are described as coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, filler, and binder. Different types of mixes are also outlined, including dense-graded mixes and stone matrix asphalt. The document examines requirements for bituminous mixes such as stability, durability, flexibility, and workability. Foamed asphalt is defined and the evolution of mix design methods over time is reviewed.
The Economic Impacts of Prohibiting Coal Fly Ash Use in Transportation Infras...artba
This document discusses the potential economic impacts of prohibiting the use of coal fly ash in transportation infrastructure construction. It finds that banning fly ash could increase annual transportation construction costs in the U.S. by $5.23 billion due to higher material prices and more frequent road and bridge repair needs. Over 20 years, the total additional cost would be $104.6 billion. Fly ash concrete is beneficial as it is more durable and less expensive than other cement mixes. Its use also has environmental benefits by reusing an industrial byproduct. The analysis is based on bid data and interviews with transportation officials.
Strength characteristics of flyash concreteTHOTA AKHIL
This research work describes the feasibility of using the thermal industry waste in concrete as partial replacement of cement. The utilization of fly-ash in concrete as partial replacement of cement is gaining immense importance today, mainly on account of the improvement in the long term durability of concrete combined with ecological benefits. The cement has been replaced by fly ash accordingly in the range of 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, by concrete mix M20.The experiments will be conducted for compressive strength by using C.T.M machine 7 and 28 days of curing
why we use fly ash in concrete , production of fly ash, how it improve the fresh and harden properties of concrete
how it react when mix with concrete.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants. It can be used as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Using fly ash provides benefits such as increased long-term strength, improved workability through its spherical particles, reduced permeability, and increased durability. Fly ash works as a pozzolanic material, where it reacts with calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration to produce additional cementitious compounds. Up to 30% of cement can typically be replaced by fly ash in concrete, providing technical and environmental benefits.
This document discusses the use of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. It provides background on fly ash, including its generation from coal combustion and characteristics. Fly ash is classified as either Class F or Class C based on its chemical composition. The document outlines experimental programs conducted to study the effects of varying fly ash replacement levels on the workability and compressive strength of concrete. Test results showed workability decreased with higher fly ash content, while compressive strength increased up to 10% replacement but decreased at 15% replacement or more. The conclusion is that fly ash replacement of up to 10% is effective but may require plasticizers at higher replacement levels.
Fly Ash as a Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete and Durability Study o...IJERD Editor
This document presents research on the use of fly ash as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. Concrete cubes were produced with 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% cement replacement by fly ash. The cubes were cured in water as well as 1%, 3%, and 5% sulfuric acid solutions. Compressive strength was tested at 28, 60, and 90 days. Results showed that cubes with 10% fly ash replacement had the highest strength when cured in water and acid solutions. Fly ash concrete also demonstrated improved durability in acidic environments compared to normal concrete. In general, fly ash concrete performed better with increasing curing time and showed potential to enhance concrete durability.
High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete: According to some researchers, more than 30% fly ash by mass (equivalent as 50% by volume) of the cementitious material may be considered enough to classify the mixtures as High-Volume Fly Ash (HVFA) concrete. It is possible to produce sustainable, high performance concrete mixtures with 50% or more cement replacement by fly ash.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion that can be used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete. There are two main classes of fly ash - Class F contains a greater combination of silica, alumina and iron, while Class C has a higher lime content. Fly ash particles fill voids in concrete, improving workability and reducing water requirements. While fly ash concrete has slightly lower early strength, it achieves higher ultimate strength and is more durable due to reduced permeability and alkali-silica reactivity. Using fly ash in concrete provides benefits like reduced heat of hydration, improved pumpability, and environmentally friendly use of an industrial byproduct.
Cement and Concrete: Promise of Fly AshDr J.D. Bapat
The presentation made by Dr J D Bapat illustrates the importance of fly ash utilisation. The slides depict how fly ash is used in cement and concrete to improve its strength and durability.
fly ash and rubber in concrete ( eco-friendly concrete)Koppolu Abishek
This study investigated the effects of partially replacing cement with fly ash and coarse aggregate with rubber chips in concrete. Concrete mixtures were prepared with 0%, 10%, and 20% fly ash replacement of cement and 5% rubber chip replacement of coarse aggregate. Fresh and hardened properties were tested. Test results found that 5% rubber replacement slightly reduced compressive strength compared to normal concrete. However, increasing fly ash content from 10% to 20% improved mechanical properties of the rubberized concrete. Therefore, partial replacement of cement with fly ash and coarse aggregate with rubber chips has potential to produce concrete with comparable strength to normal concrete while utilizing waste materials.
Fly Ash bricks are made of fly ash, lime, gypsum and sand. These can be extensively used in all building constructional activities similar to that of common burnt clay bricks.The fly ash bricks are comparatively lighter in weight and stronger than common clay bricks.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on rice husk ash (RHA). RHA is obtained by burning rice husks between 600-700°C for 2 hours. It is composed primarily of silicon dioxide and can be used to partially replace cement in concrete production. The addition of RHA increases strength and durability by reducing calcium hydroxide levels in concrete. It also reduces efflorescence and susceptibility to chemical and sulfate attacks. Using RHA in concrete can help reduce carbon dioxide emissions from cement production and provides an economic use for the agricultural waste product of rice husks. The seminar outlines the physical and chemical properties of RHA and reviews its advantages and disadvantages when used in concrete.
12 btceng040,fly ash for concrete ppt by RITESHMANI TRIPATHIRiteshmani Tripathi
This document discusses fly ash, a byproduct of coal combustion in coal-fired power plants. It is collected from the flue gases through filtration systems. Fly ash composition can vary but generally contains silicon dioxide, calcium oxide, iron oxide and aluminum oxide. It is classified into Class C and Class F fly ash based on calcium content. The document discusses various uses of fly ash in concrete, bricks, soil stabilization, embankments and its benefits like reduced greenhouse gas emissions and landfill needs. However, it also notes concerns around potential leaching of toxic elements from fly ash.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion that can be used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete. Using fly ash provides environmental benefits by reducing CO2 emissions from cement production and providing an outlet to dispose of the large amounts of fly ash produced annually. Fly ash improves the properties of concrete by increasing workability, reducing water demand, improving strength development over time, and decreasing permeability. The pozzolanic reaction of fly ash with lime from cement hydration leads to increased amounts of calcium silicate hydrate, enhancing the durability of the concrete.
The document summarizes a seminar presentation on fly ash utilization and disposal. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants. It can be utilized in construction materials like concrete and bricks to replace resources like cement, clay, and sand. It can also be used to reclaim land or stabilize soil. However, much of the fly ash currently produced worldwide is disposed of in landfills or ash ponds, which can pollute air, water, and soil if not properly managed. The presentation discusses the composition, types, production, uses, disposal methods, and environmental impacts of fly ash.
Replacement of cement with pozzolanic materialsTHOTA AKHIL
This study reports the result of an experimental investigation carried out to study the effects of fly ash on strength development of mortar and the optimum use of fly ash in mortar.
The document discusses the use of fly ash from coal combustion in power plants. It provides background on fly ash, including its composition, classification into Class F and Class C ashes, and various applications. Some key applications discussed are: use in concrete where fly ash improves workability, strength, and durability; use in road and embankment construction where it provides benefits like lighter weight and higher strength; and use in brick manufacturing where it replaces clay. The document also notes the economic and environmental benefits of utilizing fly ash, such as reducing waste, lowering costs, and decreasing greenhouse gas emissions from cement production.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal burning power plants that contains silica, alumina, and unburned carbon. It poses disposal problems as an industrial waste but can be utilized effectively for various purposes. Fly ash can replace a percentage of Portland cement in concrete production, making the concrete stronger and more durable while reducing greenhouse gas emissions from cement production. India's annual production of fly ash has increased from 116 million tons in 2006-07 to over 150 million tons currently, but only a portion is being utilized, such as in concrete, bricks, road construction, soil stabilization, and as a fill material. Harnessing this underutilized resource could provide significant economic and environmental benefits.
This document investigates replacing cement with rice husk ash in concrete. An experiment was conducted replacing 20% of cement with rice husk ash. The compressive strength at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days with 20% replacement was found to compare favorably to concrete without replacement. Using rice husk ash provides benefits like reducing greenhouse gas emissions and construction costs while utilizing an agricultural waste. The results indicate rice husk ash is a suitable partial replacement for cement in concrete.
Compressive strength variability of brown coal fly ash geopolymer concreteeSAT Publishing House
The document summarizes research investigating the compressive strength variability of geopolymer concrete made with brown coal fly ash as a binder. Testing of six mixes of geopolymer concrete found a large range in 28-day compressive strengths, from 43.81 MPa to 7.21 MPa. Additional chemical analysis found significant variability in the chemical composition of samples from the same brown coal fly ash source, particularly in the silicon dioxide and aluminum oxide contents. This variability is believed to contribute to the variability in compressive strengths and suggests the need for pretreatment and refinement of brown coal fly ash to produce more consistent geopolymer concrete.
Partial replacement of Fine aggreggate by Copper Slag and Cement by Fly Ashsushendhukc
The document summarizes research on replacing fine aggregate with copper slag and cement with fly ash in concrete. It provides background on copper slag and fly ash, including their composition and how they are produced. It then reviews several previous studies that investigated replacing fine aggregate with copper slag at levels from 5-100% and cement with fly ash at 20-60%. The studies found that compressive, tensile and flexural strength generally increased up to around 40% replacement. The document aims to further study the effects of these replacements on concrete strength and properties.
Bitumin mixes for road report documentationkumawat123
This document provides an introduction and overview of bituminous mix design for highway construction. It discusses the objectives of bituminous mix design which are to produce a mix that is strong, durable, resistant to fatigue and deformation, environmentally friendly, and economical. The key constituents of a bituminous mix are described as coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, filler, and binder. Different types of mixes are also outlined, including dense-graded mixes and stone matrix asphalt. The document examines requirements for bituminous mixes such as stability, durability, flexibility, and workability. Foamed asphalt is defined and the evolution of mix design methods over time is reviewed.
The Economic Impacts of Prohibiting Coal Fly Ash Use in Transportation Infras...artba
This document discusses the potential economic impacts of prohibiting the use of coal fly ash in transportation infrastructure construction. It finds that banning fly ash could increase annual transportation construction costs in the U.S. by $5.23 billion due to higher material prices and more frequent road and bridge repair needs. Over 20 years, the total additional cost would be $104.6 billion. Fly ash concrete is beneficial as it is more durable and less expensive than other cement mixes. Its use also has environmental benefits by reusing an industrial byproduct. The analysis is based on bid data and interviews with transportation officials.
This document discusses bitumen/filler interactions and the stiffening effect of mineral fillers in bituminous mixtures. It presents the current understanding that the stiffening effect is primarily due to the volume fraction of filler particles, as described by Einstein's equation for hard spheres in a suspension. However, hydrated lime is shown to stiffen mixtures more than other fillers, which may be partly explained by its higher packing density but also potentially due to asphaltene adsorption on the particle surfaces. Further research is needed to fully validate these mechanisms and explain differences in stiffening behavior between filler types and temperatures.
Utilization of Waste Plastic in Bituminous Mixes for Road Construction Vijay V Nair
The rapid rate of urbanization in India has led to increasing plastic waste generation. This increase has resulted in a large amount of plastic waste, particularly plastic bags and PET bottles, being littered on the landscape of India. In this context, research has been carried out to contribute to the development of efficient policy approaches on plastic waste in India. Few policies have been enforced by the government to address the acute problem of littering in the country. The purpose of this project is to investigate the possibility of using Polyethylene Terephthalate as polymer additives in Bituminous Mix. The characteristics of PET-modified bituminous mix is obtained by fix mixing temperature, was investigated. The binders were prepared by mixing the PET in 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% and 10% (by the weight of optimum bitumen) with 80/100 penetration grade bitumen at temperature of 200-220 ºC. It may be inferred that PET-modified bituminous binders provide better stability when compared to conventional binders. Using PET-modified bituminous mix also contribute to the recirculation of plastic waste, as well as to the protection of the environment.
Please use the below for Citation: Mahendra, S.P., Kumar, N.S., Prasad, K.V.R., Vijay, V., Rakesh, S.G., Likith, T., Yogesh, B.P., 2013. Study on Utilization of Waste Plastic in Bituminous Mixes for Road Construction. Proceedings of the International Conference on Futuristic Innovations & Developments in Civil Engineering (ICFiDCe ’13), Mepco Schlenk Engineering College, Sivakasi. [ISBN: 978-93-80624-88-4]
Location: Sivakasi
Event Date: Apr 18, 2013
Organization: Mepco Schlenk Engineering College
Publication Name: Proceedings of the International Conference on Futuristic Innovations & Developments in Civil Engineering (ICFiDCe ’13)
Conference End Date: Apr 20, 2013
Research Interests: Stability, Recycling of plastics waste, MSW, Plastic waste, Polyethylene terephthalate, and Bituminous Mixtures
Follow the link for accessing full paper:
https://www.academia.edu/9686909/Utilization_of_Waste_Plastic_in_Bituminous_Mixes_for_Road_Construction
Influence of additives on the drain down characteristics of stone matrix asph...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
This document provides guidelines for the design of highway pavements in India. It discusses different types of pavements, including flexible and rigid pavements. For rigid pavement design, it outlines factors like traffic, climate, materials properties. It describes the components and types of joints in concrete roads. For flexible pavement design, it discusses the group index and CBR methods, which consider soil properties and traffic volumes to determine layer thicknesses. The document provides details on mix design methods for bituminous concrete like Marshall and Hveem.
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FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF COPPER SLAG AND FLY ASH CONCRETE‐ A CASE STUDYijiert bestjournal
The present study encourages the use of waste materials copper slag (CS) and fly ash (FA) as
supplementary cement replacement materials in concrete. The combined effect of copper slag
and fly ash as a partial replacement of cement on flexural strength of concrete has been
investigated. Fifteen mixes were prepared at different replacement levels of copper slag (0 to
20% @ increment of 5%) and fly ash (0 to 10% @ increment of 5%) with cement. Three prisms
(150 mm X 150 mm X 700 mm) were casted and tested after 7 and 28-days of curing to
determine the flexural strength (modulus of rupture) for each mix. It was observed that the
flexural strength of concrete decreases as copper slag content increases for all curing ages. The
reduction in flexural strength was minor (4.30% to 7.60%) up to 10% of copper slag but beyond
10% of copper slag, there was significant reduction (24.70% to 34.21%) in flexural strength. The
addition of 5% and 10% fly ash with copper slag slightly reduced the flexural strength. It is
recommended that 10% of copper slag can be used as combined with 10% of fly ash as
maximum replacement of cement. The average flexural strength was within the permissible
values in accordance with the design specifications.
This document discusses using waste materials and byproducts from chemical plants in road construction. It provides examples of using blast furnace slag and coal combustion byproducts like fly ash and bottom ash. Blast furnace slag can replace up to 85% of Portland cement in concrete. Coal fly ash is a fine ash produced from burning coal in power plants and has been used extensively in highway construction projects for road embankments, fills, and bridges due to its engineering properties. Using waste materials like fly ash can help reduce their environmental impact while providing resources for road construction.
A Review on Utilization of Copper Slag and Silica Fume in Geotechnical Engine...IRJET Journal
This document reviews the utilization of copper slag and silica fume in geotechnical engineering applications. Copper slag and silica fume are industrial byproducts that can be used to improve soil properties. When mixed with soil, they act as stabilizing agents, improving strength, workability and other characteristics. Studies have shown that copper slag can replace up to 40% of cement in concrete and improve properties when mixed with soil at a ratio of 30% copper slag to 70% soil. Silica fume reduces cracking in compacted clay and increases soil strength. Both materials have pozzolanic properties that improve binding in soils and can be used in applications like subgrades, retaining walls and embankments.
This document presents the outline of a research project on the use of fly ash in the construction industry in Sri Lanka. It begins with an introduction describing fly ash as a byproduct of coal power generation and its current uses. It then outlines the objectives and methodology of the research project, which include understanding the properties of fly ash concrete and identifying suitable applications through literature reviews and field surveys. The document reviews the properties, production, and chemical composition of fly ash, as well as its reactions in cement. It describes several current and potential applications of fly ash in Sri Lanka, including in concrete, bricks, blocks, and road construction. It provides details on some local efforts and mix designs used. The document also notes some failures experienced with high
A Review on Potential of Utilizing Metal Industry Wastes in Construction Indu...ijsrd.com
This exploration work is an effort to develop the awareness & importance of industrial waste management & its utilization in productive manner in construction industry. In today's more environmentally-conscious world, a more responsible approach to the environment is to increase the use of by-products of one industry which is disposed off as a waste but can be used as a raw material for some other industry. Traditionally materials like clay, sand, stone, gravels, cement, brick, block, tiles, etc. are being used as major building materials in construction sector. All these materials have been produced from the existing natural resources and will have intrinsic distinctiveness for damaging the environment due to their continuous exploitation and increasing cost incrementally. Hence it is essential to find functional substitutes for conventional building materials in the construction industry. For above purpose the exploration study is carried out for understanding and determining the scope of utilization of waste from metal industry such as silica fume, copper slag, foundry waste sand and ground granulated blast furnace slag (metal industry) in construction industry. In our country annually huge quantities of wastes are produced by the industries. Instead of disposing-off these wastes if they are utilized in such a manner then it will provide an eco-friendly solution, simultaneously solving the problem of pollution and raising the step towards economy & obviously towards progress of the nation.
UTILIZATION OF IRON ORE TAILINGS AS SUBSTITUTE TO CONVENTIONAL AGGREGATES IN ...IRJET Journal
This document discusses a study on utilizing iron ore tailings as a substitute for conventional aggregates in pothole patching mixtures. Iron ore tailings are a solid waste produced during iron ore beneficiation. Tests were conducted to determine the optimum binder content for mixtures containing iron ore tailings aggregates and a cutback bitumen. The Marshall stability test determined the optimum binder content was 5% by weight. Using iron ore tailings could help reduce the environmental impacts of mining waste while providing a sustainable alternative material for pothole repair applications.
Experimental Study of using Pond Ash as Partial Replacement for Fine Aggregat...YogeshIJTSRD
Production of one ton of Portland cement emits one ton of CO2 and different greenhouse gases main to atmospheric pollution. Hence the want arises to exchange cement with some different cementitious material. Disposal of Pond ash which is combination of Fly ash andamp Bottom ash into massive lakes reasons land air pollution and different environmental effects. The cause of this find out about is to locate the suitability of silica fume as a alternative cloth for cement and pond ash as a alternative fabric for first rate combination in concrete except compromising the power andamp sturdiness of traditional concrete. The bodily and chemical property of silica fume and pond ash is to be studied and each the industrial wastes are used to substitute the cement and great aggregate. Pond ash is in part changed for fantastic mixture with the aid of various percentages 10 to 30 , additionally silica fume is introduced by way of 10 to 20 by way of the weight of cement. The specimens will be examined for its mechanical houses such as compressive strength, cut up tensile energy and flexural electricity on 7, 28 andamp 56 days. After identifying the houses of the concrete mixes, the foremost share of alternative tiers of silica fume and pond ash will be carried out and Reinforced Concrete Beams had been forged to decide the flexural behaviour for the optimized concrete Mix. Mr. K. Soundirarajan | Telem Shidartha "Experimental Study of using Pond Ash as Partial Replacement for Fine Aggregate in a Silica Fume Based Concrete" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd45048.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/45048/experimental-study-of-using-pond-ash-as-partial-replacement-for-fine-aggregate-in-a-silica-fume-based-concrete/mr-k-soundirarajan
- Fly ash is a byproduct of coal burning in thermal power plants and is currently a major waste disposal problem.
- The document discusses using fly ash to produce bricks, cement, and fertilizer as ways to utilize it productively.
- Field trials showed that adding an optimal amount of fly ash to soil increased crop yields of rice and wheat, likely by improving soil structure and water retention. However, more research is needed before conclusions can be drawn.
IRJET- Utilization of Bottom Ash in Hydraulic Stowing for Replacement of ...IRJET Journal
This document discusses utilizing bottom ash as an alternative material for hydraulic stowing in underground coal mines. Bottom ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in thermal power plants. It is coarser and heavier than fly ash, with a gritty, sand-like texture. River sand is commonly used for stowing, but scarcity has made it impractical. Bottom ash shares properties with sand that make it suitable for stowing, such as particle size distribution and permeability. Using bottom ash could provide benefits to both the mining and power sectors by addressing disposal needs and reducing costs. Initial stowing trials using bottom ash showed encouraging results. Further studies are needed but bottom ash shows potential as a viable alternative stowing material.
This document discusses fly ash management from thermal power plants. It begins with an abstract that outlines how fly ash is a major byproduct of coal-based power generation in India that can pollute the environment if not properly utilized or disposed of. The document then covers the production process of fly ash, its properties, types of ash generated, methods of disposal, and various beneficial uses like manufacturing bricks and cement. It also discusses environmental impacts and the need for proper fly ash management.
fly ash a_boon_for_concrete BY RAJ PREMANIRAJPREMANI
This document discusses the use of fly ash in concrete and other construction materials. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in power plants that is commonly disposed of in ash ponds. However, fly ash can be used beneficially in concrete, cement production, and brick making. When used to replace 15-30% of cement in concrete, fly ash increases strength and durability while reducing costs and greenhouse gas emissions from cement production. Fly ash bricks can be manufactured with less energy and emissions compared to clay bricks. Overall, the document promotes the use of fly ash as an eco-friendly and economical supplement in various construction materials.
IRJET- Analysis of strength Characteristic of Concrete using Vernacular MaterialIRJET Journal
This document analyzes the strength characteristics of concrete using vernacular materials like fly ash and potassium hydroxide as replacements for Portland cement. The study compares the compressive and tensile strengths of normal geopolymer concrete made using sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate to a concrete made using potassium hydroxide and sodium silicate. Test results showed the average compressive strength of the sodium hydroxide concrete was 50.5% higher while the average tensile strength was 34.85% higher compared to the potassium hydroxide concrete. The document concludes that sodium hydroxide produces a more economical and suitable concrete than potassium hydroxide.
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion in thermal power plants. It is collected from the plant's exhaust before it can disperse into the air. Fly ash particles solidify into glassy spheres when they cool. It contains silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, iron oxide, calcium oxide and magnesium oxide in varying amounts depending on the coal burned. India generates around 160 million tons of fly ash per year from its heavy reliance on thermal power. Only about 50% of fly ash is currently utilized, with the rest requiring proper disposal. Research is ongoing to develop more applications and increase utilization of this waste material.
Power Industry has been, and continues to be, a key factor in the economic growth of most of the developed and developing countries. In general, the power sector represents the industries with highest environmental impact and has constantly been subject of increasing pressure from new economic, energy saving and environmental issues. Coal based Power Generation has been the backbone of the any developing country. Indian coal is of low grade, having ash content as high as 45% in comparison to imported coals which have low ash content of the order of 10-15% (CEA, 2014-15). Thus, a large amount of ash is being generated by the coal based thermal power plants in India, which not only requires huge areas of precious land for its disposal and management, but, is also one of the major sources of pollution of air, water and soil. This article attempts to underline the uses of this industrial solid waste to make an efficient tool for management of fly ash. To save our environment more research and development needed to discuss the above stated issues.
Experimental Study on Utilization of Red Mud and Used Foundry Sand in Cement ...IRJET Journal
1) The document presents the results of an experimental study on utilizing red mud and used foundry sand in cement concrete as partial replacements for cement and fine aggregate, respectively.
2) Red mud is an industrial waste from aluminum production that is difficult to dispose of safely. Used foundry sand is also an industrial byproduct. The study aimed to evaluate these wastes as supplementary cementitious materials and fine aggregate replacements in concrete.
3) Concrete mixtures with 20% red mud replacement of cement and 40% used foundry sand replacement of fine aggregate showed the optimum compressive strength both at 7 days and 28 days of curing. Using these industrial wastes helped reduce environmental pollution while conserving natural resources.
The document describes a study on the strength characteristics of low-calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. Eighty-one concrete cubes were cast using a mix design of low-calcium fly ash, coarse and fine aggregates, and an alkaline activator solution to study the effect of parameters on compressive strength. The study found that geopolymer concrete made with fly ash as a binder provided higher strength and was more environmentally friendly than traditional Portland cement concrete. Parameters such as the alkaline activator concentration and use of superplasticizers were found to influence the compressive strength.
This document provides an introduction to quarry stone dust and fly ash as alternative materials to river sand in concrete production. It discusses research showing quarry stone dust and fly ash can replace up to 40% and 20% of sand respectively while maintaining or increasing strength. The document outlines the physical requirements and benefits of using fly ash, including increased workability, strength over time, and durability. It notes fly ash reduces permeability, corrosion of steel reinforcement, efflorescence, shrinkage, and heat of hydration while increasing resistance to sulfate attack, freezing and thawing, and alkali-silica reaction.
Project report on sand replacement by red mudHarshit Singh
Red mud is a byproduct of aluminum production that is currently difficult to dispose of sustainably. The document discusses several ways that red mud can be utilized in cement production, including as a replacement for raw materials in clinker production or to produce composite or alkali-activated cements. Laboratory studies show these red mud cements can achieve good physical properties and mechanical strength when designed properly. However, more research is needed to scale production and further evaluate durability before widespread industrial use. Transportation costs and red mud's high alkalinity also currently limit larger utilization in cement manufacturing.
Synergistic Effect on Ternary Blended Cementitious Systemijtsrd
This paper presents a detailed experimental investigation on the synergestic effects on ternary blended cementitious system containing fly ash and silica fume. The experimental programme consisted of three parts, the first part was to obtain the super plasticizer demand for each mix so as to obtain a workability of 110±5 , the second part was to determine the strength and durability properties of the mortar samples having different fly ash and silica fume contents and the third part was to determine the synergy existing in the ternary blends both in terms of durability and strength. Test results have shown that the ternary blended mixtures improved the mortar performance by improving the workability, strength and durability, therefore are applicable. Ternary mixtures performed in accordance with their ingredients however the degree of improvement that they contribute varies based on the selected dosage and type of SCMs. Synergy between the fly ash and silica fume is the main reason for the outstanding performance of ternary mixtures. The results obtained thus are encouraging for partial replacement. Jasir Thachaparambil "Synergistic Effect on Ternary Blended Cementitious System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-7 , December 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd52289.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/52289/synergistic-effect-on-ternary-blended-cementitious-system/jasir-thachaparambil
Impact of Using RHA and CD in Replacement of Cement for Mixijceronline
This document presents a study on the impact of using rice husk ash (RHA) and copper dust (CD) as partial replacements for cement in concrete mixes. The study involved collecting RHA and CD, testing their properties, developing mix designs, and casting and testing concrete cubes with different RHA and CD replacement levels. The key findings were:
- Replacing cement with up to 30% RHA and 40% CD in the mix designs increased the compressive strength of concrete cubes up to 25% and split tensile strength up to 40% compared to a normal concrete mix.
- Tests on the raw materials found RHA has a specific gravity of 2.52 and 75% fineness, while CD
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Exploring Fly Ash Utilization in Construction of Highways in India
1. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE)
e-ISSN: 2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 8, Issue 4 (Sep. - Oct. 2013), PP 23-32
www.iosrjournals.org
www.iosrjournals.org 23 | Page
Exploring Fly Ash Utilization in Construction of Highways in
India
Shibashish P. Mukherjee1
, Dr Gaurang Vesmawala2
1
P.G Student in Applied Mechanic Sardar Vallabhai Institute of Technology, Surat, India
2
Assistant Professor in Applied Mechanic Sardar Vallabhai Institute of Technology, Surat, India
Abstract: Fly Ash is a major issue because electricity generation in the country would remain predominantly
coal-based for a couple of coming decades. Current annual production of Fly Ash is about 131MT/year and is
expected to increase to 300-400 MT/year up to 2016. Some of the problems associated with Fly ash are large
area of land required for disposal and toxicity. Fly ash, being treated as waste and a source of air and water
pollution till recent past, is in fact a resource material and has also proven its worth over a period of time. Fly
ash is having potential for gainful utilization till is put to right use. It has now emerged not only as a resource
material but also as an environment savior. Though the fly ash utilization is old practices in roads & building
construction, there is still hesitation to adopt fly ash as a pavement & Building material for various reasons.
This paper presents different ways of using Fly ash in various Components of Road crust Construction and its
subsequent environmental effects. It also discusses the Government Policy in maximizing utilization of fly ash.
Keywords: Fly ash, TPP, HVFAC, Stabilizations, CBR, Sustainability
I. Introduction
Fly ash is a naturally-cementitious coal combustion by-product. It is extracted by the precipitators in
the smokestacks of coal-burning power plants to reduce pollution. About 120 coals based thermal power stations
in India are generating 70% of power and producing about 131 million tone fly ash per year. With the increasing
demand of power and coal being the major source of energy, more and more thermal power stations are
expected to be commissioned/ augment their capacities in near future. Continuous studies have been carried out
in India towards management of fly ash (FA), disposal and utilization. The quality of fly ash which depends on
coal, coal particle fineness, percentage of ash in coal, combustion technique used, air/fuel ratio, burners used,
and type of boiler. Fly ash is available in large quantities in our country as waste product from a number of
thermal power stations and industrials plant using pulverized coal as a fuel for the boilers. The increased
industrialization, the present level of production of fly ash is expected to double in the next 10 years.[1]
1.1.1 Background
World at present produces around approximately 1528 Million Tons of coal fly ash when India at
present produces around 131 Million Tons of Ash per annum. Out of this fly ash 30 percent fly ash were used
as Portland cement replacement in concrete and other application were as low-value road base material and
fills. Even though the beneficial use of fly ash in concrete has been known for many decades, it is still not yet
fully utilized. [2]
Table 1.1: Fly Ash Generation and Utilization in different Countries
Sr. No Country Annual Ash Production, MT Ash Utilization %
1 India 131 38
2 China 100 45
3 USA 75 65
4 Germany 40 85
5 UK 15 50
6 Australia 10 85
7 Canada 6 75
8 France 3 85
9 Denmark 3 2
10 Italy 2 100
11 Netherland 2 100
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II. Fly Ash
2.1 Definition of fly ash
Fly ash is a fine, glass powder recovered from the gases of burning coal during the production of
electricity. These micron-sized earth elements consist primarily of silica, alumina and iron. When mixed with
lime and water the fly ash forms a cementitious compound with properties very similar to that of Portland
cement.
According to IS:10153-1982[6] fly ash is a finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of
ground or powdered coal and transported by the fuel gases of boiler fired by pulverized coal.
The use of fly ash as a pozzolanna and fine aggregates and also other allied purposes is well established
in a number of countries abroad, but it has come in vogue in India only recently. Some recent
investigations of Indian fly ashes have proved their suitability for various uses.
Disposal of fly ash is a problem being faced by most of the thermal power plants where it is being
produced. This material, however, may be utilized in a number of ways, some of which have been mentioned in
this paper. If proper means and methods are not adopted for utilization and disposal of fly ash the problem will
increase in magnitude, due to its increased production, over the few years.
2.2 Classes of Fly Ash
According to ASTM C-618 Fly ash is broadly classified into two major categories: Class F and Class C
fly ash. The chief difference between these two classes is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron
content. The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the chemical content of the coal burned
(i.e., anthracite, bituminous, and lignite).
2.2.1 Class ‘F’ fly ash
The burning of old anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash which contains
less than 10% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class „F‟ Fly ash
requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the presence of water in
order to react and produce cementitious compounds. Alternatively the addition of a chemical activator such as
sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class „F‟ ash can lead to the formation of a geo-polymer.
2.2.2 Class ‘C’ Fly ash
Class „C‟ Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub bituminous coal generally
contains more than 20% lime (CaO). This type of ash does not require an activator & the contents of Alkali and
sulfate (SO4) are generally higher as compare to the Class „F‟ Fly ash.
Fig. 1 Typical ash colour (Class “F” & “C” Fly ash)
III. Methods of fly ash collection
3.1 Dry fly ash (fly ash)
Dry ash is collected from different rows of electrostatic precipitators. It is available in two different
grades of fineness in silos for use as resource material by different users in dry ash disposal; the fly ash is
transported by truck, chute or conveyor at the site and disposed of by constructing a dry embankment (dyke).
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Fig.2.1 fly ash captured by air pollution control
equipment.
Fig.2.2 Bottom ash dispose in pond ash
3.2 Wet bottom ash
Bottom ash is collected from the bottom of the boiler and transported to hydro bins and then ash
mound. In wet disposal, the fly ash is transported as slurry through pipe and disposed off in impoundment called
“Ash Pond”. Most of the power plants in India use wet disposal system. [3]
IV. Use of Fly Ash for Road Construction
Fly ash can be used for construction of road and embankment. This utilization has many advantages
over conventional methods. Saves top soil which otherwise is conventionally used, avoids creation of low lying
areas (by excavation of soil to be used for construction of embankments). Avoids recurring expenditure on
excavation of soil from one place for construction and filling up of low lying areas thus created. Fly Ash may be
used in road construction for:
1) Filling purposes. Addition of Fly Ash has not shown any adverse effects on the ground water quality in the
vicinity of experimental plots.
2) Soil mixed with Fly Ash and lime increases California Bearing Ratio (CBR), increased (84.6%) on addition
of only Fly Ash to soil.
3) Stabilizing and constructing sub-base or base.
4) Upper layers of pavements. Concrete with Fly Ash (10-20% by wt) is cost effective and improves
performance of rigid pavement.[2]
4.1 Use of Fly Ash in Road Embankment Construction
The favorable Properties of Fly ash/Pond Ash for use in embankment is listed as below and its
engineering properties is mentioned in Table 2
Pozzolanic nature
Light weight, Non plastic
High shear strength
Ease of compaction
Self hardening
Amenable to stabilization
High permeability
Faster rate of consolidation
The Salient Details regarding design and construction of road embankment using fly ash for backfill,
Stabilizations and sub base construction of Semi/Rigid pavements are provide in IRC:SP-58 2001 “Guidelines
for Use of Fly-ash In Road Embankment Indian Roads Congress Special Publication”.[8]
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Typical cross section of fly ash road embankment
4.2 Some case History of Use of Pond Ash in Road/Railway Embankment.[4]
A) Approach Embankment for Second Nizamuddin Bridge at Delhi
Length of embankment - 1.8 km
Height varies from 6 to 9 m
Ash utilized - 1,50,000 cubic meter
Embankment opened to traffic in 1998
Approximate savings due to usage of fly ash is about Rs.1.00 Crore
B) Fly ash Embankment from G.T Road to Kajouri chowk, Delhi
C) Four-laning work on NH-6, Dankuni to Kolaghat, Km 17 to 72, West Bengal
Height of embankment - 2 to 4 m
• Water logged & Soft sub-soil conditions
Fly Ash was used as Alternative Material as 2.0 million cum Earth proposed in contract document. Haul
distance more than 100 km so High transportation cost, which would result delays in expected completion
of the project
Table 2 Engineering Properties of Fly Ash
Sr. No Parameter Range
1 Specific Gravity 1.90 - 2.55
2 Plasticity Non-Plastic
3 Maximum Dry Density (gm/cc) 0.9 - 1.60
4 Optimum Moisture Content (%) 18-38
5 Cohesion (KN/m2
) Negligible
6 Angle of Internal Friction (Ф) 30o
to 40o
7 Coefficient of Consolidation Cv (cm2
/sec) 1.75 X 10-5
- 2.01 X 10-3
8 Compression index Cc 0.05 - 0.4
9 Permeability (cm/sec) 8 X 10-6
- 7 X 10-4
10
Particle Size Distribution(% of materials)
Clay size fraction 1 - 10
Silt size fraction 8 - 85
Sand size fraction 7 - 90
Gravel size fraction 0 - 10
11 Coefficient of Uniformity 3.1 - 10.7
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D) Signature Bridge, New Delhi
Embankment done with fly ash in water logged area
E) Okhla Flyover Approach Embankment
First geo-grid reinforced fly ash approach embankment constructed in the country
Length of embankment - 59 m
Height varied from 5.9 to 7.8 m
Ash utilized - 2,700 cubic metre
Opened to traffic in 1996
F) Hanuman Setu Flyover Approach Embankment
Geo-grid reinforced fly ash approach embankment
Length of embankment - 138.4 m
Height varied from 3.42 to 1.0 m
Opened to traffic in 1997
G) Sarita Vihar Flyover Approach Embankment
• Length of embankment - 90m
• Max height - 5.25 m
• Embankment opened to traffic in Feb 2001
• Polymeric friction ties used for reinforcement
H) Noida-Greater Noida Expressway
• Height of embankment varies from 3m to8m
• Approximately 23 km stretch
• Six Lane Carriageway with Median
• Side shoulders – 1.5m Paved & 1m Unpaved
• Fly-ash covered with Good Earth. [5]
4.3 Lime + Fly Ash treated Soil for improved Sub-Grade/Sub-base
Lime fly-ash treatment increases California Bearing Ratio (CBR), only on addition of fly ash @ 85 %
C.B.R value is increased. Lime fly-ash treatment is generally effective for soils which contain a relatively high
percentage of clay and silty clay.
This work shall consist of laying and compacting an improved sub-grade/lower sub-base of soil
treated with lime & fly-ash on prepared sub-grade in accordance with the requirements of this specifications and
in conformity with the lines, grades and cross sections shown on the drawings or as directed by the engineer.
Soil: The soil used for stabilization shall be the local clayey soil breaking the soil into pieces less than 20mm
etc by means of Disc Harrowing.
Lime: Lime for lime- stabilization work shall be commercial dry lime slaked at site or pre-slaked lime
delivered to the site in suitable packing. The lime shall have purity of not less than 70 percent by weight of
quick lime (CaO)
Fly Ash: Fly Ash used shall be locally available probably Pond ash available
Water: 60 to 70 liters/m2
water to be used for lime stabilization shall be clean and free from injurious
substances. Potable water shall be preferred.
Quantity of lime & Fly ash in stabilized mix : 10 kg/m2
lime + 50 kg/m2
fly ash + dry soil shall be mixed.
The laboratory CBR/UCS value shall be at least 1.5 times of the minimum field value of CBR/UCS. Lime at the
rate of 10kg/m2
& Fly ash at the rate of 50kg/m2
to be mixed with the soil in dry state. Dry lime & Fly ash shall
be prevented from blowing by adding water to the lime. No traffic other than the mixing equipment shall be
allowed to pass over the spread soil +Lime + fly ash until after completion of mixing. Mixing or remixing
operations, regardless of equipment used, shall continue until the material is free of any white streaks or pockets
or lime and the mixture is uniform.
Immediately after spreading, grading and leveling of the mixed compaction shall be carried out with
approved equipment preceded by a few passes of lighter rollers if necessary.
The sub-base course shall be suitably cured for a minimum period of 24 hours after which subsequent
pavement courses shall be laid to prevent the surface from drying out and becoming friable. [6]
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4.3.1 Some Case Histories of use of Pond Ash + Lime treated Soil for improved Sub-Grade/Sub-base
A) In Surat region the soil generally is Black cotton soil which CBR Value is 2%, the Fly-Ash + Lime
treatment is done to improve the CBR of the Sub-base/sub-grade. This treatment is used in all Arterial
Road, Collector Roads & Residential Roads within city limits of Surat Mahan agar Palika.
B) In NTPC internal Plant roads in Bharuch Fly-Ash + Lime treatment has been done before laying of Sub-
base layer.
4.4 Use of Fly Ash in Bituminous Mix Layer
Bituminous concrete/ Dense Bituminous Macadam are a composite material consisting of bitumen as a
binder and mineral aggregate. The composition of Fine and course aggregates should be in line with respective
Gradation as given in Section 500 of MORTH. The fine aggregates shall consist of material passing 2.36mm
sieve and retained on the 75 micron sieve. Particle smaller than 75 micron is made available by addition of filler
as per MORTH Clause 507.2.4.
Both Class F and Class C fly ash can typically be used as a mineral filler to fill the voids and provide
contact points between larger aggregate particles in Bitumen mixes. This application is used in conjunction or as
a replacement for, other binders (such as Portland cement or hydrated lime). For use in bituminous pavement,
the fly ash must meet mineral filler specifications outlined in Table-9 of MORTH. The hydrophobic nature of
fly ash gives pavements better resistance to stripping. Fly ash has also been shown to increase the stiffness of
the asphalt matrix, improving rutting resistance and increasing mix durability. [2]
4.5 HVFAC in Concrete Pavement.
Major Chemical constituents of fly ash are Oxides of silica, aluminum, iron, calcium & magnesium. Many
concrete roads projects are under construction and many more are in pipeline.
Design Requirement:
Flexural Strength-4.5 MPa for M40 Plain cement concrete pavement
Flexural Strength-3.8 MPa for M30 Rural concrete pavement
Flexural Strength-5.0 MPa for M45 Good Performance concrete pavement
Flexural Strength-5.0 MPa for M50 High Performance concrete pavement for white topping
Slip-Forming is used for Construction.
Fly Ash is ideal for the interstate Highway System and secondary Roads. Concrete Prepared with High
volume fly ash (HVFA) is more durable than asphaltic concrete and needs almost no maintenance. Being low
permeability of high performance concrete leads a long-lasting concrete pavement and does not require
rehabilitation and reconstruction. Studies have also proved that in concrete pavement, due to its higher
reflectance, allows big savings in energy consumption.
The pavement could be designed for longer life up to 50 years. The design of a highway pavement is based
on flexural strength and HVFA concrete keeps gaining strength with age which is an in-built safety factor.
There is no reinforcing steel in pavement concrete and roller compacted concrete. Thus the corrosion of steel
is a non issue. Pavement Quality Roads increases fuel efficiency of transport trucks by 11%, resulting in cost
savings and lower exhaust emissions.
HVFA concrete is competitive with asphaltic concrete even on first-cost basis. [2]
In paper by P Kumar Mehta a brief review is presented of the theory and construction practice with
concrete mixtures containing more than 50% fly ash by mass of the cementitious material. Mechanisms are
discussed by which the incorporation of high volume of fly ash in concrete reduces the water demand, improves
the workability, minimizes cracking due to thermal and drying shrinkage, and enhances durability to
reinforcement corrosion, sulfate attack, and alkali-silica expansion. For countries like China and India, this
technology can play an important role in meeting the huge demand for infrastructure in a sustainable manner.
[8]
4.6 Advantages of HVFAC
Among the Sustainability issues, the three major ones that are widely discussed may be summarized as
below
4.6.1 Climate change - In many parts of the world, extreme weather patterns are occurring with greater
frequency. Most scientists believe that this phenomenon is associated with the high emission rates of green-
house gases, primarily carbon dioxide, the environmental concentrations of which has increased from 280 to 370
parts per million volumes mainly during the industrial age. The transportation industry and the Portland cement
industry happen to be the two largest producers of carbon dioxide. The latter is responsible for approximately
7% of the world‟s carbon dioxide emissions. [8]
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4.6.2 Resource productivity - The concrete industry is the largest consumer of virgin materials such as sand,
gravel, crushed rock, and fresh water. It is consuming Portland and modified Portland cements at an annual rate
of about 1.6 billion metric tons. The cement production consumes vast amounts of limestone and clay besides
being energy-intensive.
With the advent of high performance concrete mixtures, some structures are now being designed and
built for a service life of 100 years. In this context, it should be noted that the Factor Ten Club, a group of
scientists, economists and business people have made a declaration that, within one generation, nations can
achieve a tenfold increase in their resource productivity through a 90% reduction in the use of energy and
materials.[8]
4.6.3 Industrial ecology - Achieving a dramatic improvement in resource productivity through durability
enhancement of products is, of course, a long-term solution for sustainable development.
The construction industry already uses concrete mixtures containing cement replacement materials,
such as 15% to 20% fly ash or 30% to 40% slag by mass. it is now possible to produce high-performance
concrete mixtures containing 50% to 60% fly ash by mass of the blended cementitious material. Fly ash is
readily available in most parts of the world. China and India, the two countries that consume large amounts of
cement, together produce over 300 million tons of fly ash per year. [8]
3.7. Salient Features of high-performance concrete
The characteristics defining a HVFA concrete mixture are as follows:
• Minimum of 50% of fly ash by mass of the cementitious materials must be maintained.
• Low water content, generally less than 130 kg/m3
is mandatory.
• Cement content, generally no more than 200kg/m3
is desirable.
4.8 Usage of Fly Ash in Concrete Road Construction.
A) Fly Ash was permitted for use on NH-4 four lanning projects from Satara to Kolhapur. The project was
executed by MSRDC. Out of 5 Packages of this project in two Packages Cement was replaced with fly ash to
the Proportion of 50%.
B) MCD Demonstration Road Projects Location- Fatehpur Beri, New Delhi
Length 100 rmt, Width 7 metres
Thickness 270mm
Concrete road was constructed using 3 grades of concrete to compare performance and suitability for
pavement construction
M30 Plain (Without Fly ash)
M 30 HVFAC ( with 50% Fly ash)
M40 HVFAC ( with 50% Fly ash)
Very good encouraging results were obtained.
4.9 Usage of Fly ash in Kerb Casting
Kerb casting can be done with 50% age replacement of cement with fly ash using Slip Forming.
M25 Grade slip forming Kerb was casted by Gujarat State Highway projects
4.10 Other Disposal and Market Sources
4.10.1 Cellular Light Weight Concrete (CLC) Blocks: These are substitute to bricks and conventional concrete
blocks in building with density varying from 800 kg/m3
to 1800 kg/m3
.
4.10.2 Development of Fly Ash Based Polymer Composites as Wood Substitute: Fly ash based composites have
been developed using fly ash as filler and jute cloth as reinforcement. This technology has been developed by
Regional Research Laboratory, Bhopal in collaboration with Building Materials & Technology Promotion
Council (BMTPC) and TIFAC. One commercial plant has also been set up based on this technology near
Chennai [8].
4.10.3 Portland Pozzolanna Cement: Up to 35% of suitable fly ash can directly be substituted for cement as
blending material. Addition of fly ash significantly improves the quality & durability characteristics of resulting
concrete. In India, present cement production per annum is comparable to the production of Fly Ash. Hence
even without enhancing the production capacity of cement; availability of the cement (fly ash based PPC) can be
significantly increased.
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4.10.4 Fly Ash- Sand-Lime-(Gypsum /Cement) Bricks /Blocks: Fly Ash can be used in the range of 40-70%.
The other ingredients are lime, gypsum /cement, sand, stone dust/chips etc. Minimum compressive strength (28
days) of 70 kg/cm2
can easily be achieved and this can go up to 250 Kg/cm2
(in autoclaved type).
4.10.5 Roller compacted concrete: Another application of using fly ash is in roller compacted concrete dams.
Many dams in the US have been constructed with high fly ash contents. Fly ash lowers the heat of hydration
allowing thicker placements to occur. This has also been demonstrated in the Ghatghar Dam Project in India [2].
4.10.6 Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture: The field demonstration experiments carried out under varied agro-
climatic conditions and soil types across the country by various R & D Institutes / Universities on the cultivation
of different field crops (cereals, pulses, oil seeds, sugar cane, vegetables, etc.) and forestry species with different
doses of fly ash and pond ash as soil modifier / source of economical plant nutrients with and without organic
manure bio-fertilizer and chemical fertilizers in respect to crop yield, soil health, quality of crop produce, uptake
of nutrients and toxic heavy metals, ground water quality [2]
V. Initiatives taken by Government of India in the direction Conversion of fly ash into
wealth generator
Initiatives taken in the direction of creating Fly Ash grading facility at Thermal Power Plants
As circular by CPWD, IS 456:2000 etc. specifies certain grade of fly ash (conforming to IS 3812) for
cement/concrete applications which is not easily available at Thermal Power Plants. Therefore, it was felt
necessary to create some fly ash processing facility at TPP so that graded fly ash can be made available to end
user. In this regard, letters have been issued to many Thermal Power Stations detailed presentation has been
made to Central Electricity Authority and discussions are in progress with some of the TPPs [9].
Government Of India Ministry of Road Transport & Highway in continuation to the Ministry‟s letter
No.RW/NH-33044/30/2001-S&R(R) Dated 4th
December, 2003 forwarded thereby the amendments to the
Clause 305 “Embankment Construction” of MORTH fourth revision along with list of Thermal Power Plant
generating Fly/Pond Ash in different states, it is stated that that Ministry of Environment & Forests,
Government of India vide notification No. S.O. 979(E) dated 27th August, 2003 published in the Gazette of
India, Part-II- Section 3-Sub-section (ii) has made use of Fly/Pond ash compulsory in road embankment
construction. [10]
Sub paragraph (g) of paragraph 2 of the notification at page 10 makes the following amendments:
„No agency, person or organization shall, within a radius of 100 kilometers of a thermal power plant undertake
construction or approve design for construction of roads or flyover embankments in contravention of the
guidelines/specifications issued by the India Road Congress(IRC) as contained in IRC specification No. SP: 58
of 2001. Any deviation from this direction can only be agreed to on technical reasons if the same is approved by
Chief Engineer (Design) or Engineer-in-Chief of the concerned agency or organization or on production of a
certificate of “Pond ash not available” from the thermal power plant(s) (TPPs) located within 100 kilometers of
the site of construction. This certificate shall be provided by the TPP within two working days from the date of
making a request for ash‟.
2. Further vide Sub paragraph (2B) of paragraph 5 at page 13 of the notification, all agencies undertaking
construction of roads or fly over bridges including Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (MORT&H),
National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), Central Public Works Department (CPWD), State Public Works
Departments and other State Government Agencies, shall within three months from the 1st day of September,
2003-
a. make provisions in their tender documents, schedules of approved materials and rates as well as
technical documents, including those relating to soil borrow area or pit as per sub-paragraph(7) of
paragraph 1; and
b. Make necessary specifications /guidelines for road or fly over embankments that are not covered by the
specifications laid down by the Indian Road Congress (IRC).
3. In compliance to above, in second part of Para 2 of the Ministry‟s letter of even number dated 30th July, 2003
referred above, the words „economically viable lead‟ stand substituted as „a radius of one hundred kilometers of
a thermal power plant‟.
4. It is, therefore, requested that the requisite amendments may please be carried out at the appropriate places
and complied strictly.
5. It is requested that quarterly „Action Taken Report‟ on use of fly/pond ash in road/flyover embankment
construction on NH/other centrally sponsored works in your State/Organization may please be forwarded to the
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Ministry addressed to Shri S.S.Nahar, SE(R) S&R, Room No. 340, Transport Bhavan, 1, Parliament Street, New
Delhi- 110 001. [10]
As per provisions in MORT&H Revision-5 clauses 601.2.2 & 602.2.2
Cement: Any of the following types of cement may be used with prior approval of the Engineer:
Sr. No Type Conforming to
1 Ordinary Portland Cement 43 Grade IS:8112
2 Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement IS:455
3 Portland Pozzolanna Cement IS:1489-Part I
4 Ordinary Portland Cement 53 Grade iv) IS:12269
Note:
1) Fly ash up to 20 percent by weight of Cement may be used in 53 Grade Cement. No fly ash shall be used in
any other grade of Cement other than 53 Grade. The fly ash shall conform to IS: 3812 (Part-I).
2) Site mixing of fly ash shall be permitted only after ensuring availability at site, uniform blending through a
specific mechanical facility with automated process control like batch mix plant conforming to IS:4925 and
IS:4926.
3) Mix design will be done as per IRC: SP: 49. The OPC content shall not be less than 135 kg/cum in case of
blending at site. The curing period may be suitably enhanced (by at least about 2 days).
4) Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) obtained by grinding granulated slag conforming to IS:
12089. GGBFS shall not be used in any other grade of cement except 53grade. The content of GGBFS shall be
up to 50 percent by weight of Ordinary Portland Cement 53 grade
5) Mix design will be done as per IRC: 44. The OPC content shall not be less than 310 kg/cum in case of
blending at site. The curing period may be suitably enhanced by at least about 2 days.
6) The Portland Pozzolana Cement produced in factory shall not have fly ash content more than 25 percent. The
Portland Pozzolana Cement produced in factory with fly ash content more than 25 percent shall not be used.
Certificate from the manufacturer to this effect shall be procured before use. [11]
VI. Conclusion
The use of coal for power generation results in an increased quantum of fly ash production, which has
reached about 131 million tons per year. All out efforts are to utilize this fly ash not only from environmental
considerations, but also to avoid land usage for fly ash dumping. Though there has been a steady progress in fly
ash utilization from 1990, we have a long way to go to reach the target of 100 per cent fly ash utilization.
Fly ash can become a wealth generator by making use of it for producing “green building“materials,
roads, agriculture etc. Full utilization of the generating stock will provide employment potential for three
hundred thousand people and result in a business volume of over Rs.4,000 crore.”
Cement and Concrete Industry accounts for 50% Fly Ash utilization, the total utilization of which at
present stands at 30MT (38%). The other areas of application are Low lying area fill (17%), Roads &
Embankments (15%), Dyke Raising (4%), and Brick manufacturing (2%)
Government has also framed policy so that fly ash is used.
National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) is currently using 60 lakh m3
of Fly Ash and proposed to use
another 67 lakh m3
in future projects. We all will work together to make 38% usage to 100% usage of fly ash.
Reference
[1] DST, MOEP & MOP, Fly ash Utilization program 2012-13, UFCA 11.
[2] J Alam & M. N. Aktar, Fly Ash Utilization in Different Sectors in India, International Journal of Emerging trends in Engineering
and Development, issue 1, vol 1, Aug 2011.
[3] IS: 10153-1982, Indian Standard Guidelines for utilization and disposal of fly ash.
[4] Vashi Jigisha M, Adoption of Industrial By product fly ash as a fill material for Modern reinforced earth structures, National Work
shop on Utilization of Fly ash, 123-133, 2011.
[5] U. K. Guru Vittal ,Use of fly ash in Road & Embankment Construction, National Work shop on Utilization of Fly ash, 43-55, 2011.
[6] Lime Stabilization for Sustainable Road construction at Surat, South Gujarat, National Work shop on Utilization of Fly ash, 119-
122, 2011
[7] Sanjay Srivastava, Laboratory Investigation of High Performance Concrete for High Pavements.
[8] P Kumar Mehta, High-Performance, High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete for Sustainable Development, International Workshop on
sustainable development and Concrete Technology.
[9] Circular by CPWD No. CDO/SE (RR)/Fly Ash (Main)/387, May 13, 2004.
[10] MORT&H. Notification No.RW/NH-33044/30/2001-S&R(R), 4th
December 2003.
[11] Specifications for Roads & Bridges works (fourth revision), 2001.
[12] I.S. 3812, Specification for Fly ash as pozzolanna and admixture (First Revision) 1983.
10. Exploring Fly Ash Utilization In Construction Of Highways In India
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[13] I.S. 8112-43 Grade ordinary Portland cement specification (First Revision) 1989.
[14] IRC: SP 58-2001 Guidelines for Use of Fly-ash In Road Embankment Indian Roads Congress Special Publication.
[15] P. Kumar Mehta, Concrete Technology for Sustainable Development in the Twenty First Century, Proceedings of the International
Symposium February, 1999.
[16] Tarun R Naik, Performance of High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete Pavements since 1984, The Indian Concrete Journal, Vol. 78, No. 3,
March 2004,137-144.
[17] Building Materials in India: 50 Years, A commemorative volume published by BMTPC.