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Contour lines
Contour lines on a topographical map represent imaginary lines connecting points of equal elevation above or below a datum. The vertical distance between contour lines is called the contour interval. Index contours are drawn with a heavier line every fifth contour to aid identification of elevations. Intermediate contours fall between index contours. Contour lines can be marked in the field using a homemade A-frame leveling device to identify points of equal height and indicate slope. The spacing of contour lines depends on the steepness of the slope, with closer lines used for steeper slopes to prevent soil erosion.
Topo map package w images
This document provides guidance on reading and interpreting topographical maps. It outlines key elements such as grid lines, grid references, map scales, measuring distances, directions, bearings, representing relief features, drainage patterns, and analyzing human landscapes. Examples and exercises are provided to help students practice skills like calculating gradients, describing river flows, and inferring land use from map evidence. The goal is for students to feel confident in summarizing relief, drainage, coastal, and human features from topographical maps.
Total station Surveying
This document provides an overview of a total station, including its key components and functions. A total station is an electronic surveying instrument that combines an electronic distance meter and theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles and distances. It allows simultaneous measurement of all surveying parameters needed for construction layout and topographic surveys. The total station's main components include an electronic distance measurement system, angle measurement circles, telescope, microprocessor, keyboard, and display. Accessories such as prisms, data collectors, and software enable various surveying tasks.
Surveying
Surveying is defined as determining the relative positions of points on, above, or beneath the earth's surface through measurements of horizontal and vertical distances, angles, and directions. The primary objective of a survey is to prepare a plan or map. Surveying is essential for engineering and construction projects like highways, railways, and irrigation systems as it involves preparing accurate plans and sections. Surveying can be divided into plan surveying and geodetic surveying, with plan surveying covering smaller areas where earth's curvature is ignored, while geodetic surveying covers larger distances and accounts for curvature.
Contours And Its Uses
Contour maps depict lines connecting points of equal elevation and are used to select economical sites for engineering projects like canals, roads, and railways. They provide information about the terrain and help locate physical features to minimize earthworks and tracing optimal grades. Contour maps play a vital role in engineering works by aiding the planning of reservoirs, roads, and other infrastructure on varied topographies.
Lecture 7 setero parllax
This document discusses stereoscopic parallax and its use in photogrammetry. Stereoscopic parallax is the apparent shift in position of an object's image between two overlapping photographs taken from different positions. The amount of parallax is directly related to the object's elevation - higher objects have greater parallax. Parallax can be measured directly on the photographs or using a stereoscope. The parallax measurements can then be used in trigonometric equations to calculate the ground coordinates and elevations of points visible in the stereo pair. These parallax methods provide a fundamental way to determine elevations from aerial photographs.
Contour Lines
There are 3 ways to show height above sea level on a map: contour lines which join points of equal height; spot heights which are specific measured points; and triangulation points which are concrete pillars used for measurement. Contour lines never cross, are orange, thin and faint, form circuits, and are closer together for steeper land and farther apart for flatter land.
topographic maps
Topographic maps provide three-dimensional information about landforms and structures through the use of contour lines. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and allow the reader to determine elevation, slope steepness, and identify natural and manmade features of the landscape. Topographic maps are used by engineers, the military, and for recreational activities like hiking.
Recommended
Contour lines
Contour lines on a topographical map represent imaginary lines connecting points of equal elevation above or below a datum. The vertical distance between contour lines is called the contour interval. Index contours are drawn with a heavier line every fifth contour to aid identification of elevations. Intermediate contours fall between index contours. Contour lines can be marked in the field using a homemade A-frame leveling device to identify points of equal height and indicate slope. The spacing of contour lines depends on the steepness of the slope, with closer lines used for steeper slopes to prevent soil erosion.
Topo map package w images
This document provides guidance on reading and interpreting topographical maps. It outlines key elements such as grid lines, grid references, map scales, measuring distances, directions, bearings, representing relief features, drainage patterns, and analyzing human landscapes. Examples and exercises are provided to help students practice skills like calculating gradients, describing river flows, and inferring land use from map evidence. The goal is for students to feel confident in summarizing relief, drainage, coastal, and human features from topographical maps.
Total station Surveying
This document provides an overview of a total station, including its key components and functions. A total station is an electronic surveying instrument that combines an electronic distance meter and theodolite to measure horizontal and vertical angles and distances. It allows simultaneous measurement of all surveying parameters needed for construction layout and topographic surveys. The total station's main components include an electronic distance measurement system, angle measurement circles, telescope, microprocessor, keyboard, and display. Accessories such as prisms, data collectors, and software enable various surveying tasks.
Surveying
Surveying is defined as determining the relative positions of points on, above, or beneath the earth's surface through measurements of horizontal and vertical distances, angles, and directions. The primary objective of a survey is to prepare a plan or map. Surveying is essential for engineering and construction projects like highways, railways, and irrigation systems as it involves preparing accurate plans and sections. Surveying can be divided into plan surveying and geodetic surveying, with plan surveying covering smaller areas where earth's curvature is ignored, while geodetic surveying covers larger distances and accounts for curvature.
Contours And Its Uses
Contour maps depict lines connecting points of equal elevation and are used to select economical sites for engineering projects like canals, roads, and railways. They provide information about the terrain and help locate physical features to minimize earthworks and tracing optimal grades. Contour maps play a vital role in engineering works by aiding the planning of reservoirs, roads, and other infrastructure on varied topographies.
Lecture 7 setero parllax
This document discusses stereoscopic parallax and its use in photogrammetry. Stereoscopic parallax is the apparent shift in position of an object's image between two overlapping photographs taken from different positions. The amount of parallax is directly related to the object's elevation - higher objects have greater parallax. Parallax can be measured directly on the photographs or using a stereoscope. The parallax measurements can then be used in trigonometric equations to calculate the ground coordinates and elevations of points visible in the stereo pair. These parallax methods provide a fundamental way to determine elevations from aerial photographs.
Contour Lines
There are 3 ways to show height above sea level on a map: contour lines which join points of equal height; spot heights which are specific measured points; and triangulation points which are concrete pillars used for measurement. Contour lines never cross, are orange, thin and faint, form circuits, and are closer together for steeper land and farther apart for flatter land.
topographic maps
Topographic maps provide three-dimensional information about landforms and structures through the use of contour lines. Contour lines connect points of equal elevation and allow the reader to determine elevation, slope steepness, and identify natural and manmade features of the landscape. Topographic maps are used by engineers, the military, and for recreational activities like hiking.
Application of curves
Horizontal curves are used to change the alignment and direction of roads and railways. Simple curves focus on providing adequate stopping sight distance, while compound curves are used when land availability is limited, such as connecting runways and taxiways at airports. Reverse curves are useful for pipelines, flumes, and levees, as well as low speed roads and railroads, though they require caution for canals due to navigation and erosion issues. Vertical curves provide a smooth transition between two grades, especially in hilly or mountainous areas where roads need to climb heights.
Contouring
This document discusses contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour line as a line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which depends on factors like the nature of the ground and the map scale. Contour maps show the topography of an area and can be used for engineering projects, route selection, and estimating earthworks. Methods of plotting contours include direct methods using levels or hand levels, and indirect methods like gridding, cross-sectioning, and radial lines. Characteristics of contours provide information about the landscape.
Theodolite Traversing
The document discusses theodolite traversing and defines key terms related to using a transit theodolite. It describes the main components of a transit theodolite including the telescope, vertical circle, plate bubbles, tribrach, and foot screws. It explains how to perform temporary adjustments like centering the theodolite over a station mark and leveling it using the tripod and foot screws. It also provides details on measuring horizontal and vertical angles with a vernier theodolite.
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This document provides guidance on creating sketch maps from Ordnance Survey (O.S.) maps and aerial photographs for the Leaving Certificate Geography exam. It outlines the key steps to take, such as drawing sketch maps to half scale from O.S. maps and including titles, scales, legends and north arrows. Checklists are provided for sketch maps of O.S. maps and aerial photographs that emphasize including only the requested features and matching the shape and orientation of the original map or photograph. An example sketch map is shown for each.
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Requirement of highway alignment
Factors controlling Alignment
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Factors controlling Alignment on hilly areas
drainage
Dumpy level
The dumpy level is an optical surveying instrument used to determine relative elevations and distances of points in a survey. It consists of a telescope secured by collars and spindles to a horizontal stage. The telescope can only rotate horizontally. Dumpy levels are used to measure heights and distances between locations. They have simple construction, require few adjustments, and retain accuracy over time due to rigidity. However, they can be difficult for engineers to use accurately and are not as easy to operate as other instruments.
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The document discusses the basic applications of surveying that are important for quantity surveyors to understand. It defines surveying as determining the relative positions of points on the earth's surface. Surveying is classified based on the instruments used, objectives, and methods employed. The key types are plane, geodetic, chain, compass, theodolite, tachometric, photogrammetric, and EDM surveying. Surveying has various purposes like topographical maps, cadastral maps, engineering maps, and setting out work. It is essential for quantity surveyors to have basic knowledge of surveying applications to efficiently work with surveyors.
Surveying
This document provides an overview of surveying concepts and techniques. It discusses:
1) The definitions, classifications, instruments, and methods used in surveying like chain surveying, compass surveying, plane table surveying, and total station surveying.
2) The objectives of surveying which include preparing maps, plans and transferring details to mark locations on the ground for engineering projects.
3) The primary divisions of surveying into plain surveying which ignores curvature of the earth, and geodetic surveying which accounts for curvature over large areas.
4) Fundamental surveying principles like working from the whole to parts, and locating new points using two measurements from fixed references.
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Stereoscopic vision
This document discusses stereoscopic vision and its use in aerial photo interpretation. Stereoscopic vision involves using binocular vision to view overlapping photos from two camera positions to perceive 3D depth. Various stereoscopes can be used, like lens stereoscopes suitable for field use. Key measurements for determining object heights from stereo pairs include the average photo base length and differential parallax. Precise stereoplotters and software can digitally recreate stereo models for mapping. Orthophotos rectify photos to show objects in true planimetric positions.
Plane Table Survey
The document provides information on plane table surveying. It describes plane table surveying as a graphical surveying method where field observations and plotting are done simultaneously. Key instruments used include a plane table mounted on a tripod, an alidade, and accessories like a trough compass and spirit level. There are different methods of plane table surveying, including radiation, intersection, and resection, which involve drawing radial lines from survey stations to locate points.
Compass surveying
The document discusses various topics related to surveying including chain surveying, compass surveying, traversing, prismatic compasses, bearings, latitude and longitude, and compass adjustments. It provides information on when different surveying methods are recommended based on terrain and area size. It also defines key terms like meridians, bearings, declination, inclination, and different bearing systems. Examples are given for calculating bearings and adjusting for magnetic attraction. Adjustments discussed for prismatic compasses include centering, leveling, and focusing the prism.
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Aerial photogrammetry ppt 2
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- Calculating the scale of photographs based on known distances and camera specifications. Scale expresses the ratio of distances on the photo to distances on the ground.
- Determining the heights of objects visible in photos using relief displacement, which measures the difference in an object's appearance between the top and bottom due to perspective.
- Planning flight paths to ensure adequate overlap between consecutive aerial photos for stereoscopic analysis and 3D modeling.
- Using a stereoscope to merge overlapping photo pairs and perceive depth and parallax differences between matching points in the stereo pair.
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The document outlines the steps involved in highway route location, which includes reconnaissance, preliminary, and final location surveys. The reconnaissance survey evaluates feasibility of corridor routes based on topography, traffic, land use, environment, and economics. The preliminary survey determines horizontal and vertical alignments and evaluates routes for cost, environment, safety, and cost-benefit. The final survey fixes the center line and collects additional data like cross-sections and elevations for working drawings. The overall process aims to find a location that minimizes costs while considering traffic needs and impacts.
IMAGE INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES of survey
Image interpretation is the process of examining an aerial photo or digital remote sensing image and manually identifying the features in that image. This method can be highly reliable and a wide variety of features can be identified, such as riparian vegetation type and condition, and anthropogenic features
Levelling
1. Levelling is used to determine relative heights and elevations of points and establish points at required elevations. It involves using instruments like levels and staffs.
2. There are different types of levels (dumpy, tilting, wye, automatic) and staffs (self-reading, target). Precise levelling is done to establish permanent benchmarks.
3. Adjustments must be made to level instruments during setup and permanently. Methods like differential, profile and cross levelling are used depending on the task. Reciprocal levelling involves backsight-foresight exchange to check for errors.
Topic stereoscopy, Parallax, Relief displacement
stereoscopic principles, calculation of height with parallax and relief displacement, mosaic and maps, mosaic vs maps
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The document discusses map scales. It defines three types of scales: stated scale, linear scale, and ratio scale. It explains how to convert between ratio scales and stated scales using the metric system and decimal places. It provides examples of calculating distances on maps using cross-multiplication and five steps: find the ratio scale, convert to stated scale, measure map distance, use cross-multiplication, and write a conclusion statement. Finally, it describes the difference between large scale and small scale maps in terms of the level of detail shown and area covered.
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The document discusses the Fifth Commandment from the Jewish 10 Commandments. It states that the commandment prohibits killing and expresses that all people have a right to life without threat of violence. It also says the commandment establishes our duty to respect the lives of others and protect life. The 10 Commandments provide moral guidance for Christians and Jews when making decisions, as some may consider what the commandments state, such as honoring parents when deciding whether to drink alcohol against their wishes.
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Application of curves
Horizontal curves are used to change the alignment and direction of roads and railways. Simple curves focus on providing adequate stopping sight distance, while compound curves are used when land availability is limited, such as connecting runways and taxiways at airports. Reverse curves are useful for pipelines, flumes, and levees, as well as low speed roads and railroads, though they require caution for canals due to navigation and erosion issues. Vertical curves provide a smooth transition between two grades, especially in hilly or mountainous areas where roads need to climb heights.
Contouring
This document discusses contouring and contour maps. It defines a contour line as a line connecting points of equal elevation. The vertical distance between consecutive contours is called the contour interval, which depends on factors like the nature of the ground and the map scale. Contour maps show the topography of an area and can be used for engineering projects, route selection, and estimating earthworks. Methods of plotting contours include direct methods using levels or hand levels, and indirect methods like gridding, cross-sectioning, and radial lines. Characteristics of contours provide information about the landscape.
Theodolite Traversing
The document discusses theodolite traversing and defines key terms related to using a transit theodolite. It describes the main components of a transit theodolite including the telescope, vertical circle, plate bubbles, tribrach, and foot screws. It explains how to perform temporary adjustments like centering the theodolite over a station mark and leveling it using the tripod and foot screws. It also provides details on measuring horizontal and vertical angles with a vernier theodolite.
Drawing Sketch Maps of O.S. Maps and Aerial Photographs
This document provides guidance on creating sketch maps from Ordnance Survey (O.S.) maps and aerial photographs for the Leaving Certificate Geography exam. It outlines the key steps to take, such as drawing sketch maps to half scale from O.S. maps and including titles, scales, legends and north arrows. Checklists are provided for sketch maps of O.S. maps and aerial photographs that emphasize including only the requested features and matching the shape and orientation of the original map or photograph. An example sketch map is shown for each.
Highway Alignment
Highway Alignment
Requirement of highway alignment
Factors controlling Alignment
Obligatory points
traffic
geometric design
economy
Factors controlling Alignment on hilly areas
drainage
Dumpy level
The dumpy level is an optical surveying instrument used to determine relative elevations and distances of points in a survey. It consists of a telescope secured by collars and spindles to a horizontal stage. The telescope can only rotate horizontally. Dumpy levels are used to measure heights and distances between locations. They have simple construction, require few adjustments, and retain accuracy over time due to rigidity. However, they can be difficult for engineers to use accurately and are not as easy to operate as other instruments.
Application of surveying
The document discusses the basic applications of surveying that are important for quantity surveyors to understand. It defines surveying as determining the relative positions of points on the earth's surface. Surveying is classified based on the instruments used, objectives, and methods employed. The key types are plane, geodetic, chain, compass, theodolite, tachometric, photogrammetric, and EDM surveying. Surveying has various purposes like topographical maps, cadastral maps, engineering maps, and setting out work. It is essential for quantity surveyors to have basic knowledge of surveying applications to efficiently work with surveyors.
Surveying
This document provides an overview of surveying concepts and techniques. It discusses:
1) The definitions, classifications, instruments, and methods used in surveying like chain surveying, compass surveying, plane table surveying, and total station surveying.
2) The objectives of surveying which include preparing maps, plans and transferring details to mark locations on the ground for engineering projects.
3) The primary divisions of surveying into plain surveying which ignores curvature of the earth, and geodetic surveying which accounts for curvature over large areas.
4) Fundamental surveying principles like working from the whole to parts, and locating new points using two measurements from fixed references.
Lecture 1-aerial photogrammetry
aerial photogrammetry, vertical photographs, oblique photographs, low photographs, scale of photo graphs, remote sensing,
Stereoscopic vision
This document discusses stereoscopic vision and its use in aerial photo interpretation. Stereoscopic vision involves using binocular vision to view overlapping photos from two camera positions to perceive 3D depth. Various stereoscopes can be used, like lens stereoscopes suitable for field use. Key measurements for determining object heights from stereo pairs include the average photo base length and differential parallax. Precise stereoplotters and software can digitally recreate stereo models for mapping. Orthophotos rectify photos to show objects in true planimetric positions.
Plane Table Survey
The document provides information on plane table surveying. It describes plane table surveying as a graphical surveying method where field observations and plotting are done simultaneously. Key instruments used include a plane table mounted on a tripod, an alidade, and accessories like a trough compass and spirit level. There are different methods of plane table surveying, including radiation, intersection, and resection, which involve drawing radial lines from survey stations to locate points.
Compass surveying
The document discusses various topics related to surveying including chain surveying, compass surveying, traversing, prismatic compasses, bearings, latitude and longitude, and compass adjustments. It provides information on when different surveying methods are recommended based on terrain and area size. It also defines key terms like meridians, bearings, declination, inclination, and different bearing systems. Examples are given for calculating bearings and adjusting for magnetic attraction. Adjustments discussed for prismatic compasses include centering, leveling, and focusing the prism.
Error in Levelling with its Preventive Measures
This presentation discusses errors in levelling and their preventive measures. There are three main types of errors: instrumental errors caused by imperfect equipment; natural errors from factors like curvature of the earth and atmospheric refraction; and personal errors from mistakes during manipulation, reading, or recording. To reduce errors, levels must be carefully tested and adjusted before use. Back sights and foresights should be equal, and field checks should be performed. Precautions like using an umbrella and avoiding noon hours can also help minimize natural errors.
Aerial photogrammetry ppt 2
This document discusses various techniques for analyzing aerial photographs, including:
- Calculating the scale of photographs based on known distances and camera specifications. Scale expresses the ratio of distances on the photo to distances on the ground.
- Determining the heights of objects visible in photos using relief displacement, which measures the difference in an object's appearance between the top and bottom due to perspective.
- Planning flight paths to ensure adequate overlap between consecutive aerial photos for stereoscopic analysis and 3D modeling.
- Using a stereoscope to merge overlapping photo pairs and perceive depth and parallax differences between matching points in the stereo pair.
Spatial data for GIS
Also known as geospatial data or geographic information it is the data or information that identifies the geographic location of features and boundaries on Earth, such as natural or constructed features, oceans, and more. Spatial data is usually stored as coordinates and topology, and is data that can be mapped.
Highway route location
The document outlines the steps involved in highway route location, which includes reconnaissance, preliminary, and final location surveys. The reconnaissance survey evaluates feasibility of corridor routes based on topography, traffic, land use, environment, and economics. The preliminary survey determines horizontal and vertical alignments and evaluates routes for cost, environment, safety, and cost-benefit. The final survey fixes the center line and collects additional data like cross-sections and elevations for working drawings. The overall process aims to find a location that minimizes costs while considering traffic needs and impacts.
IMAGE INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES of survey
Image interpretation is the process of examining an aerial photo or digital remote sensing image and manually identifying the features in that image. This method can be highly reliable and a wide variety of features can be identified, such as riparian vegetation type and condition, and anthropogenic features
Levelling
1. Levelling is used to determine relative heights and elevations of points and establish points at required elevations. It involves using instruments like levels and staffs.
2. There are different types of levels (dumpy, tilting, wye, automatic) and staffs (self-reading, target). Precise levelling is done to establish permanent benchmarks.
3. Adjustments must be made to level instruments during setup and permanently. Methods like differential, profile and cross levelling are used depending on the task. Reciprocal levelling involves backsight-foresight exchange to check for errors.
Topic stereoscopy, Parallax, Relief displacement
stereoscopic principles, calculation of height with parallax and relief displacement, mosaic and maps, mosaic vs maps
Geography Skills: Scale
The document discusses map scales. It defines three types of scales: stated scale, linear scale, and ratio scale. It explains how to convert between ratio scales and stated scales using the metric system and decimal places. It provides examples of calculating distances on maps using cross-multiplication and five steps: find the ratio scale, convert to stated scale, measure map distance, use cross-multiplication, and write a conclusion statement. Finally, it describes the difference between large scale and small scale maps in terms of the level of detail shown and area covered.
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St. Teresa of Avila
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Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Contours
- 1. Contours These slides will slowly tell you about contours wait until you see the NEXT button to move on. NEXT Click the NEXT only when you are ready to move onto the next slide
- 2. Relief or shape of the land is shown by Contours XXXX xxxxxx • Contours are those light brown or orange lines you XXXXX can see on OS maps. • A contour line is an imaginary line that joins points of equal height above sea level. • The lines are numbered giving the height above sea level in metres. • On an OS 1:50000 map the contours will be drawn for every 10 metre rise. Although on this map they are every 3m so always NEXT remember to check.
- 3. What use are contours? • They can be used to learn about the shape of the land (the relief). • A map with only a few contour lines will be flat (and often low lying) • If a map has lots of contours it is a mountainous or hilly area. • The actual pattern of the lines will tell you more detail about the area too. XXX NEXT XXX XXX
- 4. • It is important to remember that the closer together the contour lines the steeper the slope. XXXX Steep slopes XXXX Area that is flatter with only a gentle slope XXXX •Let’s have a look at why that is. NEXT
- 5. • This is the side view of a hill. Let’s see where this hill reaches these heights Now let’s plot those points XXXX Now if we plotted those points on paper. 300m 250m 200m 150m 100m Sea level See how these lines are closer together on the steeper slope NEXT
- 6. Let’s look at some other examples NEXT
- 7. Think where is the steepest slope on this island? Click here to see if you’re right xxx 200 150 100 50 XXXX XXXX
- 8. Steepest slope – contour lines are closest together xxx Sparrow point 227 200 . 76 150 100 50 Sometimes spot heights can be shown as a dot with a note of XXXX the height of that particular place. XXXX A trigonometrical point (or trig point) shows the highest point in an area (in meters) and is shown as a blue triangle NEXT
- 9. You can spot other features by the shape and pattern of the contours NEXT
- 10. A valley may look like this… 150 120 90 Often with a river running down through the valley NEXT
- 11. However a spur can look very similar ! 90 120 150 But here the heights are increasing in the opposite direction – always double check which way the NEXT contours are increasing or decreasing.
- 12. Valley Spur 150 90 120 120 90 15 0 NEXT
- 13. Now Try your hand at a short test or click on the return button to re-run this presentation. For test click here RETURN