Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations. The three channelization protocols are FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA
The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network (WAN) or between nodes on the same local area network (LAN) segment.
RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL IN COMMUNICATION AMOGHA A K
In random access ,each station has right to send the data. However , if more than one station tries to send ,collision will occur .To avoid this collision , protocols came into existence.
In random access method , no stations are superior & none is assigned the control over the other .
When a station has a data to send , it uses a procedure defined by a protocol whether to send or not .
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, media access control (MAC) data communication protocol is a sublayer of the data link layer (layer 2). The MAC sublayer provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multiple access network that incorporates a shared medium, e.g. an Ethernet network. The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a media access controller.
The MAC sublayer acts as an interface between the logical link control (LLC) sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.
The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network (WAN) or between nodes on the same local area network (LAN) segment.
RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL IN COMMUNICATION AMOGHA A K
In random access ,each station has right to send the data. However , if more than one station tries to send ,collision will occur .To avoid this collision , protocols came into existence.
In random access method , no stations are superior & none is assigned the control over the other .
When a station has a data to send , it uses a procedure defined by a protocol whether to send or not .
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, media access control (MAC) data communication protocol is a sublayer of the data link layer (layer 2). The MAC sublayer provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that make it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multiple access network that incorporates a shared medium, e.g. an Ethernet network. The hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a media access controller.
The MAC sublayer acts as an interface between the logical link control (LLC) sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC layer emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may provide unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) is a media access control method used most notably in early Ethernet technology for local area networking.Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection is a media access control method used most notably in early Ethernet technology for local area networking. It uses carrier-sensing to defer transmissions until no other stations are transmitting.
By reading this you can enhance your knowledge about Data Communication Network and Redundancy check used for it for error detection. It only Detect the error and discard it from the sequence given in that codes.
In this we discuss about DATA RATE LIMITS
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate:
Nyquist bit rate for a noiseless channel
BitRate = 2 * bandwidth * log 2 L
2: Shannon Capacity for a noisy channel
Capacity = bandwidth * log 2 (1 + SNR)
...............
PERFORMANCE (Network PERFORMANCE) :
Bandwidth: ( Bandwidth in Hertz and Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds) :
Throughput:
These above topics covered in this slide
Thanks You!
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) is a media access control method used most notably in early Ethernet technology for local area networking.Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection is a media access control method used most notably in early Ethernet technology for local area networking. It uses carrier-sensing to defer transmissions until no other stations are transmitting.
By reading this you can enhance your knowledge about Data Communication Network and Redundancy check used for it for error detection. It only Detect the error and discard it from the sequence given in that codes.
In this we discuss about DATA RATE LIMITS
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate:
Nyquist bit rate for a noiseless channel
BitRate = 2 * bandwidth * log 2 L
2: Shannon Capacity for a noisy channel
Capacity = bandwidth * log 2 (1 + SNR)
...............
PERFORMANCE (Network PERFORMANCE) :
Bandwidth: ( Bandwidth in Hertz and Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds) :
Throughput:
These above topics covered in this slide
Thanks You!
Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Definition
Features
Example
Example Diagram
Mechanisms
Chip Sequences Code
Walsh Tables: Chip Sequence Code Generation
CDMA: Representation of Data
CDMA : An Real Example
CDMA : Digital Signal Created
CDMA : Data on the Channel
CDMA: Decoding of composite signals in one station
CDMA : Advantages of Synchronous & Asynchronous
CDMA : Uses
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Event Management System Vb Net Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
In present era, the scopes of information technology growing with a very fast .We do not see any are untouched from this industry. The scope of information technology has become wider includes: Business and industry. Household Business, Communication, Education, Entertainment, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Distance Learning, Weather Forecasting. Carrier Searching and so on.
My project named “Event Management System” is software that store and maintained all events coordinated in college. It also helpful to print related reports. My project will help to record the events coordinated by faculties with their Name, Event subject, date & details in an efficient & effective ways.
In my system we have to make a system by which a user can record all events coordinated by a particular faculty. In our proposed system some more featured are added which differs it from the existing system such as security.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
3. Multiple Access
• If there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver then
data link control layer is sufficient, however if there is no dedicated
link present then multiple stations can access the channel
simultaneously.
• Decrease collision and avoid crosstalk.
• For example,
In a classroom full of students, when a teacher asks a question
and all the students (or stations) start answering simultaneously
(send data at same time) then a lot of chaos is created( data
overlap or data lost) then it is the job of the teacher (multiple
access protocols) to manage the students and make them
answer one at a time.
Multiple Access Control 3
5. RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL
• No station is superior to another station
• None is assigned the control over another
• At any instance, a station sends data by following a protocol to make
decision whether to send or not
• It depends on state of medium (idle or busy)
• As there is no scheduled time for station to transmit and as
transmission is among stations, this method is called random access
Multiple Access Control 5
6. CONTROL ACCESS PROTOCOL
• The stations consult one another to find station has right to send
• A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations.
Multiple Access Control 6
7. CHANNELIZATION
• A multiple access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is
shared in time, frequency or through code, between different stations
• Three Channelization protocol
Frequency division multiple access
Time division multiple access
Code division multiple access
Multiple Access Control 7
8. Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
• Available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands
• Each station is allocated with a band to send its data
• Each band is reserved for specific station all the time
• Each station uses a bandpass filter to confine transmitter frequencies
• In order to avoid station interferences, allocated bands are separated
from one another by small guard bands.
Multiple Access Control 8
9. • FDMA specifies a predetermined
frequency band for entire period
of communication
• Stream data (a continuous flow
of data that may not be
packetized) can be easily used
with FDMA
Fig 2: Frequency division multiple access
Multiple Access Control 9
10. FDM FDMA
Is a physical layer technique Is a data link layer technique
Combine load from low bandwidth
channels and transmits them by
using a high bandwidth channel
Each station tells its physical layer to
make a bandpass signal from the
data passed to it
The channels that are combined the
low pass
The signal must be created in the
allocation band.
The multiplexer modulates the signal
combines them and creates a
bandpass signal
There is no physical multiplexer at
the physical layer. the signal created
at each station are automatically
bandpass filtered.
The bandwidth of each channel is
shifted by the multiplexer
The bandwidth are mixed when they
are sent to a common channel
Multiple Access Control 10
11. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS(TDMA)
• Time division multiple access is a channel access method for
shared medium networks.
• It allows several users to share the same frequency.
• Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send
data.
• Each station transmits its data in is assigned time slot.
Multiple Access Control 11
13. CONTD,..
• The main problem with TDMA is lies in achieving synchronization
between the different stations.
• Each station needs to know the beginning of its slot and the location
of its slot.
• This is difficult because of propagation delays introduced in the
system if the stations are spread over large area.
• To compensate this we insert guard times.
Multiple Access Control 13
14. • The process uses a physical multiplexer that interleaves data units
from each channel.
• TDMA, on the other hand, is an access method in the data link layer.
• The data link layer in each station tells its physical layer to use the
allocated time slot. There is no physical multiplexer at the physical
layer.
CONTD,..
Multiple Access Control 14
15. EXAMPLES OF TDMA
• IS-136
• Personal digital cellular(PDC)
• Integrated digital enhanced network
• 2G-second generation 3G based on CDMA
• Universal terrestrial radio access(UTRA)
Multiple Access Control 15
16. CODE-DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)
• Code-division multiple access (CDMA) was conceived several decades
ago. Recent advances in electronic technology have finally made its
implementation possible.
• CDMA differs from FDMA because only one channel occupies the
entire bandwidth of the link.
• It differs from TDMA because all stations can send data
simultaneously; there is no timesharing
17. ANALOGY
• CDMA simply means communication with different codes.
• For example,
In a large room with many people, two people can talk in
English if nobody else understands English. Another two people
can talk in Chinese if they are the only ones who understand
Chinese, and so on. In other words, the common channel, the
space of the room in this case, can easily allow communication
between several people, but in different languages (codes).
18. Idea
• Let us assume we have four stations 1, 2, 3, and 4 connected to the
same channel. The data from station 1 are dl , from station 2 are d2,
and so on. The code assigned to the first station is cI, to the second is
c2, and so on. We assume that the assigned codes have two
properties
1. If we multiply each code by another, we get O.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the number of stations).
Multiple Access Control 18
19. • Station 1 multiplies its data by its code to get dl .
Cl' Station 2 multiplies its data by its code to get d2
. c2' And so on.
• The data that go on the channel are the sum of all
these term. Any station that wants to receive data
from one of the other three multiplies the data on
the channel by the code of the sender.
• For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking
to each other. Station 2 wants to hear what station
I is saying. It multiplies the data on the channel by
cl' the code of station 1.
• Because (cl . cl) is 4, but (c2 . cI), (c3 . cI), and (c4 .
cl) are all Os, station 2 divides the result by 4 to
get the data from station 1.
Fig 4: Simple idea of communication with code
data =(d) . Cj + dz . Cz +d3 . C3 + d4 . c4) . Cl
=d j . Cl . Cj +dz.Cz . Cl + d3 . C3 . Cl + d4 . C4' CI
=4 X d1
Multiple Access Control 19
20. CHIPS
• CDMA is based on coding theory. Each station is assigned a code,
which is a sequence of numbers called chips.
Multiple Access Control 20
21. Chip sequences
• I [+1 +1 +1 +11 I 1[+1 -1 +1 -I) I I [+1 + -I - 11 I I [+ -1 -1 +IJ I
• Each sequence is made of N elements, where N is the number of
stations.
• If we multiply a sequence by a number, every element in the
sequence is multiplied by that element. This is called multiplication of
a sequence by a scalar. For example,
[+1 +1-1-1]=[+2+2-2-2]
• If we multiply two equal sequences, element by element, and add the
results, we get N, where N is the number of elements in the each
sequence. This is called the inner product of two equal sequences.
For example,
[+1 +1-1 -n· [+1 +1 -1 -1] = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
Multiple Access Control 21
22. • If we multiply two different sequences, element by element, and add
the results, we get O. This is called inner product of two different
sequences. For example,
[+1 +1 -1 -1] • [+1 +1 +1 +1] = 1 + 1- 1- 1= 0
• Adding two sequences means adding the corresponding elements.
The result is another sequence. For example,
[+1+1-1-1]+[+1+1+1+1]=[+2+2 00]
Multiple Access Control 22
23. DATA REPRESENTATION
Rules of encoding
• If station sends a 0 bit, it encodes it as -1
• If station sends a 1 bit, it encodes it as +1
• When a system is idle, it send no signal i.e. 0
Fig 5: Data representation
Multiple Access Control 23
24. ENCODING AND DECODING
Consider station3 is
silent , and its listening
to station2.
Station 3 multiplies the
total data on the
channel by code for
station2
Fig 6: Sharing channel in CDMA
0
Multiple Access Control 24
25. SIGNAL LEVEL
• The total data on
channel are multiplied
by the signal
representing station 2
chip code to get a new
signal
• The station then
integrates and adds the
area under signal to get
the value -4, which
divided by 4 and
interpreted as bit0
Multiple Access Control 25
27. SEQUENCE GENERATION
• Walsh table is used, which is two dimensional table (n*n matrix)
• Each row is a sequence of chips
• Values assigned are either +1 or -1
Multiple Access Control 27