This document provides an overview of microprocessors and microcontrollers. It discusses different types of computers including supercomputers, mainframes, minicomputers, and microcomputers. It also describes the basic parts of a microcomputer including the central processing unit, memory, and input/output ports. The document gives details about memory, buses, and provides examples of instruction execution in a microprocessor. It lists many manufacturers of microprocessors and provides information about the Intel 8086 microprocessor architecture.

1. Microprocessor &
Microcontrollers
Lecture # 1 & 2

2. Books
• Microprocessors And Interfacing By Douglas V. Hall
(Revised Second Edition)
• The Intel Microprocessors By Barry B. Brey
(Eighth Edition)
• Assembly Language Programming and Organization of the IBM PC By
Ytha Yu, Charles Marut

3. Types Of Computers
•Super Computer
•Mainframes
•Minicomputers
•Microcomputers

4. Super computer
• The most powerful computers in performance and processing.
• capable to solve immense mathematical calculations, scientific problems
• called number crunchers.
• difficult to design and need teamwork research and development.
• weather forecasting,
• quantum mechanics
• physical simulation
(spaceship aerodynamics and testing
of nuclear weapons
• oil exploration.
• IBM Roadrunner
• Trinity by Cray Inc.
• IBM Sequoia

5. Mainframes
• They are designed to work at very high speeds with large data words,
typically 64 bits or greater & have massive amount of memory.
• They are used for military defense control, for business data
processing , computer graphic display for science fiction movies and
etc. Universities, banking institutions, stock exchanges, insurance
companies
• IBM zSeries
• System z9
• System z10 servers

6. Minicomputers
• Scaled down versions of mainframes are often called minicomputers.
• A minicomputer runs more slowly, works with smaller data words
often 32 bit words and have less memory than mainframes.
• They are used for Industrial control, scientific research and etc.
computerization of data, scientific research, industrial process, data
collection and telephone switches
• IBM System/3
• Honeywell 200
• TI-990

7. Microcomputers
• Microcomputers are small computers and works with 4 bit word and
have lesser memory.
• These ae also known as personal computers (PCs). They are small in
sizes and relatively inexpensive. They are highly flexible and designed
for small scale personal use and business application. these are based
on microprocessor technology, a silicon chip containing the
important circuitry to perform operations.
• IBM, Dell, Sony, HP and Apple are the manufactures of
microcomputers. Nowadays they have come more advance and
powerful in technology.

8. Overview of Microcomputer
So the major parts of the Microcomputer are:
i. Central Processing Unit (C.P.U)
ii. Memory
iii. Ports (I/O)
• These Parts are connected through Buses.
CPU
MEMORY
(RAM and
ROM)
IO Ports
Control
Bus
Control
Bus
Data Bus
Address Bus
Input
Devices
Output
Devices

9. Memory
• The memory can be ROM, RAM, Magnetic Hard Disk, Magnetic
Floppy Disk.
• It has two purposes, first is to store the binary codes for the
sequences of instructions we want the computer to carry out.
• Second purpose is to store the binary coded data with which the
computer is going to be working.

10. Input/Output
• It refers to the communication between a computer and the outside
world which may be a human being or some other computers.
• Inputs are the data or signal received by the system.
• The data or signal sent out by the system are outputs.
• The interface between a computer and the other computer or
peripheral devices is called Port.

11. C.P.U
• It controls all the operations of the microcomputer.
• CPU fetches binary coded instructions from memory, decodes the
instructions into a series of simple actions, and carry out these
actions in a sequence of steps.
• It contains Instruction Pointer Register or Address Counter Register,
which holds the address of the next instruction or data item to be
fetched from memory.
• It also contains General Purpose Registers.

12. Buses
• Set of parallel lines connecting the major parts of microcomputer is
called Bus.
• There are three types of buses:
i. Address Bus.
ii. Data Bus.
iii. Control Bus.

13. Address Bus
• It is a set of 16, 20, 24 or 32 parallel signal lines.
• When CPU needs to write or read data from memory, it sends the
address of that location on the address bus.
• The number of memory locations that the CPU can address is
determined by the number of address lines. i.e. 2^N
• It is a uni-directional bus.

14. Data Bus
• It is a set of 8, 16 or 32 parallel signal lines.
• It is a bi-directional bus.
• If it consists of 8 lines, it means it contains 8 bits at a time.
• With the help of data bus, the CPU can send or receive data from
memory or from port.

15. Control Bus
• It is a set of 4 to 10 parallel lines.
• It carry control signals from CPU to either the memory or I/O.
• Common control signals are:
i. Memory Read
ii. Memory Write
iii. I/O Read
iv. I/O Write

16. Large Scale Integration
• Large-scale integration (LSI) is the process of integrating or embedding
thousands of transistors on a single silicon semiconductor microchip. LSI
technology was conceived in the mid-1970s when computer processor
microchips were under development.

17. Execution Of A Three Instruction Program
• Phenomena on which CPU works:
Fetching ---- Decoding ---- Execution
• Assumptions:
i. Instructions are stored in memory at consecutive memory
locations, starting at address 00100H.
ii. The CPU can fetch data or instructions from memory one byte at a
time.

22. •1Altera
•2AMD
•3Apollo
•4ARM
•5Atmel
•6AT&T
•7Bell Labs
•8BLX IC Design Corporation
•9Broadcom
•10Centaur Technology/IDT
•11Cyrix
•12Data General
•13Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
•14Digital Equipment Corporation
•15Emotion Engine by Sony & Toshiba
•16Elbrus
•17Electronic Arrays
•18EnSilica
•19Fairchild Semiconductor
•20Freescale Semiconductor
•(formerly Motorola)
•21Fujitsu
•22Garrett AiResearch
•23Google
•24Harris Semiconductor
•25Hewlett-Packard
•26Hitachi
•27Inmos
•28IBM
• 28.1POWER
• 28.2PowerPC-AS
• 28.3z/Architecture
•29IIT-M
•30Intel
•31Intersil
•32ISRO
•33Lattice Semiconductor
•34MIPS Technologies
•35MOS Technology
•36National Semiconductor
•37NEC
•38NVIDIA
•39NXP (formerly Philips Semiconductors)
•40OpenCores
•41Oracle Corporation (formerly Sun Microsystems)
•42RCA
•43Renesas Electronics
•44RISC-V Foundation
•45Sunway
•46STMicroelectronics
•47Tesla
•48Texas Instruments
•49Toshiba
•50VIA
•51Western Design Center
•52Western Digital
•53Western Electric
•54Xilinx
•55Zilog
Microprocessor Manufacturers

23. List of Intel processors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_processors#8086

24. The 8086 Microprocessor
• The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor.
• It has 16-bit data bus.
• It has 20-bit address bus.
• Each memory address represents a byte wide location.
• The Intel 8088 has the same ALU , same registers, same instruction set
except it has 8-bit data bus.
• Others are 80186, 80188, 80286, 80386(32-bit), 80486 and Pentium
processors.

25. 8086 Internal Architecture
• The 8086 CPU is divided into two independent functional parts:
i. Bus Interface Unit (BIU)
ii. Execution Unit (EU)
• Dividing the work between these two speeds up processing.

27. BIU
• BIU sends out addresses, fetches instructions from memory, reads
and write data from ports and memory.
• The BIU handles all transfers of data and addresses on the buses for
the execution unit.

28. EU
• The execution unit of 8086 tells the BIU from where to fetch
instructions and data.
• Decodes Instructions.
• Executes Instructions.
• It consists of following parts:
i. Control Circuitry, Instruction Decoder, and ALU.
ii. General-Purpose Registers.
iii. FLAG Register.

29. Control Circuitry, Instruction Decoder, ALU
• EU contains control circuitry which directs internal operations.
• A decoder in the EU translates instructions fetched from memory
into a series of actions.
• EU has a 16-bit Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) which can add , subtract,
AND, OR, XOR, increment, decrement, complement, or shift binary
numbers.

30. General-Purpose Registers
• EU has Eight General-Purpose Registers, which are AH, AL, BH, BL,
CH, CL, DH, DL.
• These registers can be used individually for temporary storage of 8-
bit data.
• Certain pairs of these General-Purpose Registers can be used
together to store 16-bit data word.
• The acceptable register pairs are:
i. AX=AH-AL
ii. BX=BH-BL
iii. CX=CH-CL
iv. DX=DH-DL

32. Example
• If AX = 20A2H then AH = 20H, AL = A2H
• In other words, if AH = 1CH and AL = A2H then AX = 1CA2H
0001 1100 1010 0010 AX
0010 0000 1010 0010
AH AL
AX