A change of climate, which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.

1. Sher-e-Kashmir
University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, Jammu
Dr. Parshant Bakshi
Head, ACHR, Udheywalla
Effect of climate change on management of
abiotic stress in fruit crops
Expert Lecture in 10 days Short course on 7-11-2017
Presented by

2. What do you mean by climate change……?
Climate change refers to the variation in the
Earth's global climate or in regional climates
over time.
UNFCCC defines climate change as “a change
of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the
composition of the global atmosphere and
which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time
periods.”
IPCC , 2007

3. CLIMATE CHANGE-A REALITY
Global mean temperatures increased by 0.74 degree C
during last 100 years
By 2100 rise of 1.8 to 40C is expected
Build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide over time
(IPCC, 2007)

4. Climatic
element
Expected changes by 2050's
Confidence
in
prediction
Impact on horticulture
CO2
Increase from 360ppm to 450 –
600 ppm (2005 levels now at
379ppm)
Very high
Good for crops: increased
photosynthesis; reduced water
use
Sea level
rise
Rise by 10 -15 cm. Increased in
south and offset in north by natural
subsistence/rebound
Very high
Loss of land, coastal erosion,
flooding, Salinization of
groundwater
Tempera
ture
Rise by 1-2oC. Winters warming
more than summers. Increased
frequency of heat waves
High
Faster, shorter, earlier
growing seasons, range
moving north and to higher
altitudes, heat stress risk,
increased Evapo transpiration
Precipita
tion
Seasonal changes by ± 10% Low
Impacts on drought risk' soil
workability, water logging
irrigation supply, transpiration
Storminess
Increased wind speeds, especially
in north. More intense rainfall
events.
Very low
Lodging, soil erosion, reduced
infiltration of rainfall
Predicted effects of climate change over the next 50 years

5. The Greenhouse Effect
Green house gases
CO2, methane, CO, CFC, Nitrous oxide etc. These atmospheric
constituents will not absorb the incoming short waves but these will
absorb the outgoing long waves reflected from the earth surface there by
warming the earth
There are 2 sources of the Greenhouse Effect
 Natural Greenhouse Effect
Without it, Earth would have no living things and would be more like
Venus or Mars. This is how it works with CO2, the major component.
This effect is supporting existence of life on earth
 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
Due to increase in concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere, much
more of the heat energy from the sun is trapped in the earth’s
atmosphere, making it hotter. This effect is mainly due to anthropogenic
activities

6. Causes of climate change
Natural Causes
Anthropogenic Causes
1) Continental drift
2) Volcanoes
3) The Earth’s Tilts
4) Ocean Currents
5) Intensity of Solar
Radiation
1) Green Houses Gases
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (NO2)
• Chloro floro carbons (CFCs)
• Ozone (O 3)
• Water Vapors (H2O)
2) Land Use Change
• Deforestation
• Urbanization

7. Elements involved in Climate change
Climate
change
Garbage
Swampy
rice fields
Aerosol
propellants
Flooding of costal
regions
CO2
Photochemical
reaction
CFC-12
Cattle
O3
Biomass
Burning
fertilizer
CH4
Deforestation Rising sea level
Fossil fuel
combustion
Decreased reflective surface
Refrigerants
Warm oceans
N 2O
Melting glaciers of polar caps
CFC-11
Decreased CO2
solubility in water

8. WHY CLIMATE CHANGE A CONCERN ?
• Rise in global average Surface temperature of 1.0 to 3.5
degrees Celsius by 2100
• Sea levels to rise 7-23 inches by the year 2100
• Carbon dioxide expected to be 100% higher in 2100
• Annual river run off and water availability will increase at
high latitudes and Decrease in some dry regions at mid-
latitudes and in the tropics
• Changes in rainfall and the disappearance of glaciers
• The ability of ecosystems to naturally adapt to changes in
climate is likely to be severely reduced ( IPCC, 2007)

9. Climatic variables affecting fruit
production
• Temperature
• Soil temperature and moisture
• Rainfall
• Light
• Wind
• Relative Humidity
• Hail
• Frost

10. How this changing climate effect fruit crops
 Temperature
 Higher temperature speed plant growth and development in
annual crops
 In perennial crop, being grown in a climate near its optimum, a
temperature increase of several degrees could reduce
photosynthesis and shorten the growing period affecting the
productivity e.g. banana.
 In areas where current temperatures are below optimal for
specific crops, there will be a benefit, while in areas where plants
are near the top of their optimal range, yields will decrease .
 Even a minor climate shift of 1-2o C could have a substantial
impact on the geographic range of these crops. As fruit crops are
perennial moving production area is difficult.

11. How this changing climate effect fruit crops
 Carbon dioxide
 It is accepted that the atmospheric CO2 is increasing
exponentially and will likely to double i.e. about 700 ppm within
the next century .
 This has a beneficial effect on plants and increase productivity.
 This is not universal as the biochemistry of photosynthesis
differ among plant spices.
 C3 plants benefit much more from increase in CO2 than C4.
 Build up of sugar in the leaves giving a negative feed back on
photosynthesis and benefits from elevated CO2 become
minimal.

12. How this changing climate effect fruit crops
 Precipitation
 Rainfall
• Change to India's annual
monsoon are expected to result in
severe droughts and intense
flooding in parts of India.
•This change create problems for
field operation, more compaction
of soil, and possible crop losses
due to lack of oxygen for roots and
disease problems associated with
wet condition.
•Trend over the decreased amounts
of annual rainfall in Kullu valley-
the attribute on which the colour of
an apple mostly depends and
regulation of moisture stress.
 Snowfall
• On set of early snow in
December and January had
occurred more infrequently
overtime and extended through the
months of Feb. and March.
• Early snow contributes nitrogen
for plant use, replenish soil
moisture and prevent humidity
build up.
• Amount of snow determines the
number of chilling hours and
thereby the time of bud break

13. WHAT IS STRESS ?
• Stress in physics is any force applied to an object.
• Stress in biology is any change in environmental
conditions that might reduce or adversely change a plant’s
growth or development.
• Stress may be defined as any environmental conditions
that prevents the plants from achieving its full genetic
potential .

14. Types of stress
ABIOTIC STRESSES
•Environmental, non-biological
•Temperature (high / low)
•Water (high / low)
•Salt
•Radiation
•Chemical
BIOTIC STRESSES
•Caused by living organisms
•Fungi
•Bacteria
•Insects
•Herbivores
•Other plants/competition
Effect of Biotic and Abiotic stress
on growth, quality and yield

15. Light and heat stress induces
membrane damage and
photo inhibition that leads to
Reactive Oxygen Species
(ROS) accumulation.
Drought stress causes stomata
closure and photosynthesis
impairment which leads to
ROS accumulation .
Pollutants such as O3 and
sulphuric acid, causes acid
rain, and directly damage
the leaves and induce
oxidative stress on tissues
Soil salinity causes stress which
leads to ROS production. High
salinity decreases mineral
nutrient uptake further
stressing the plant.
Cold Stress often alters
membrane properties and
affect enzymatic activity.
Frost damage can cause
severe damages to the plant
and tissues necrosis.
Mechanical damage caused
both by abiotic and biotic
factors, induces the expression
of defense related functions.
Heavy metals cause cytotoxic
effects via different mechanisms
such as production of ROS,
blocking of essential functional
groups and displacement of
essential metal ions from
biomolecules.
Water excess causes
hypoxia, programmed cell
death and oxidative stress .
Effect of different types of abiotic
stresses

16. A significant change in climate at global and national level is
certainly impacting our fruit production and quality.
India is the second largest producer of fruits after China, with a
production of 9,37,07,000 metric tonnes of fruits from an area of
64,57,000 hectares (NHB, 2017).
Due to rise in temperature, crops develop more rapidly and
mature earlier. e.g. citrus and grapes, etc. mature earlier by
about 15 days.
Strawberries produce more runners at the expense of fruits.
Specific chilling requirements of pome and stone fruits will be
affected hence dormancy breaking will be earlier.
The climate change increases the atmospheric temperature and
change of rainfall pattern, as a result, banana cultivation may
suffer from high temperature, soil moisture stress or flooding /
water logging
(Datta, 2013)
Climate Change –Fruit production

17. But understanding of impact of climate change on perennial
horticultural production system and the potential effects on
fruit quality have drawn a little attention of researchers.
The consequences of such rapid change are - global
warming, change of seasonal pattern, excessive rain, melting
of ice cap, flood, rising sea level, drought etc. leading to
extremity of all kinds.
Decrease in potential yields is likely to be caused by
shortening of the growing period, decrease in water
availability.
High humidity (85-90%), moderate temperatures
(maximum temperature of 25-26°C and minimum of 18-20°C)
provided favourable condition for the initiation of disease
(Chhata et al., 2006).
Climate Change –Fruit production

18. At any given time, under natural conditions, the fruit plants
are affected by the sum total of all the climatic factors and not
by any individual factor
All the factors are interrelated. Variation in one may affect the
other. For instance, an increase in temperature would certainly
bring out a decrease in humidity. Increased light intensity, in
addition to affecting the rate of photosynthesis, would also
increase the temperature, which in-tern affect the atmospheric
humidity
Nobel Laureate Pachauri said “total agricultural land will
shrink and the available land may not remain suitable for the
present crops”
Stress Interaction

19. (Datta, 2013)
Production timing will change due to rise in temperature. As
a result, photosensitive crop will mature faster
The winter regime and chilling duration will reduce in
temperate regions affecting the temperate crops
Pollination will be affected adversely because of higher
temperature. Floral abortions, flower and fruit drop will be
occurred frequently
The requirement of annual irrigation will increase and heat
unit requirement will be achieved in much lesser time
Coastal regions can expect much faster percolation of sea
water in inland water tables causing more salinity
Implications of Abiotic Stresses
(Datta, 2013)

20. Winter temperatures and precipitation especially in the form of
snow are very crucial for induction of dormancy, bud break and
ensuring flowering in apples (Jindal et al 2001)
1200 chilling hours are required for Sparking Delicious apple for
proper bud and flowering in Mashobra conditions of Himachal
Pradesh (Jindal and Mankotia 2004)
The decrease in snowfall during March to May have caused
increase in temperature in apple growing regions and reflected in
low yield of apple in regions below 1500 msl (Rana et al 2008)
Climatic change affects proline accumulation in pomegranate
fruits and in hot and dry conditions, proline accumulation
increases in fruits (Halilova and Yildiz 2009)
Increase in temperature and CO2 will lead to an increase in
population of pests and severity of diseases in presence of host
plant. It increases the rate of reproductive cycle of insect and pest
Implications of Abiotic Stresses

21. IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON FRUIT CROPS

22. Climate change will impact fruit industry and region
 Changes in the suitability and adaptability of current cultivars as
temperatures change, together with changes in the optimum growing
periods and locations for fruit crops. For instance, in pomegranate, the
aril colour turns from red to pink. However, it is the genotype
x environment interaction that ultimately decides the expression of a
trait. The stability of the genotype to perform under different
environment is the ultimate deciding factor in the expression of any trait.
 Changes in the distribution of existing pests, diseases and weeds, and
an increased threat of new incursion.
Increased incidence of physiological disorders such as tip burn and
blossom end rot.
Greater potential for downgrading product quality e.g. because of
increased incidence of sunburn.

23. Increases in pollination failures if heat stress days occur during
flowering.
Increased risk of spread and proliferation of soil borne diseases
as a result of more intense rainfall events coupled with warmer
temperatures.
Increased irrigation demand especially during dry periods.
Changing reliability of irrigation schemes, through impacts on
recharge of surface and groundwater storages.
Increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations will benefit
productivity of most fruit crops, although the extent of this benefit
is unknown.
Increased risk of soil erosion and off-farm effects of nutrients and
pesticides, from extreme rainfall events.
Increased input costs-especially fuel, fertilizers and pesticides.

24. Table 1: Agro -ecological regions of North west Himalayas
Regions Climate, altitute
(m, above msl)
Crops grown Parts of the state covered
J&K H.P
Region-I
(Sub-
mountainous
& low hill)
Subtropical
200-800
Mango, ber,
guava, citrus,
pear
Jammu, Kathua &
Plains of
Udhampur
Una, Bilaspur,
Hamirpur & parts
of Shirmor, Kangra,
Solan & Chamba
II (mid Hills) Sub humid
801-1800
Pear, peach,
plum, apricot,
walnut, apple
Hilly areas of
Doda, Udhampur,
Rajouri, Punch,
Ramban
Parts of Kangra,
Palampur,
Shimla, Mandi,
Solan, Kullu,
Chamba, Sirmaur
III (High Hills) Temperate
1801-2200
apple, almond,
cherry, Pear,
peach, plum,
apricot, walnut
All the districts of
Kashmir valley &
Ladakh
Shimla & parts of
Kullu, Solan,
Chamba, Mandi,
Kangra, Sirmau
IV (very high
hills)
Temperate
dry> 2200
apple, almond,
cherry, Pear,
peach, plum,
apricot, walnut
Ladakh Kinnor, Lahaul,
Spiti,
Pangi& Bharmour

25. In recent years, marked changes in the pattern of snowfall in Kashmir, is
effecting all the pome and stone fruits. It has been observed that the
snowfall and flowering in some years is coinciding leading to great loss in
quantity and quality.
A shift has been recorded in the rice fields of Kashmir valley to temperate
fruit and nut crops are more remunerative as compared to agronomic crops
The IMD monitoring reveals that temperatures are increasing in both
Jammu region and Kashmir valley, with significant increase in maximum
temperature 0.05° Celsius per year. The average mean temperature in
Kashmir has risen by 1.45° C in last 28 years while in Jammu region, it
has increased by the rise is 2.32° C.
Impact of Climate change on temperate crops
(Lal, 2014)

26. (Lal, 2014)
Impact of Climate change on temperate crops
As a result of rise in temperature and decline in rainfall, the
apricot and cherries are fast disappearing from some areas of
Kashmir valley.
Due to general temperature rise and less availability of water,
the yield and quality of apple in valley and mid temperate region
of Jammu are fast deteriorating.
Over the last few years, there has been distinct slow growth in
production and productivity in rainfed areas of Kashmir due to
unusual hailstorms and windstorms in fruits like cherry, apple,
peach, plum and apricot that are getting damaged heavily.

27. The impact of temperature change is most in apple and almond
where trees sprout 2-
3 weeks early but normally apples trees sprout in mid April.
As a result, in last few years,
about 70 per cent of trees began to open their buds in mid
March. At the end of March, it can definitely become very cold
again. At this time most trees have their buds open are
very susceptible to frost damage.
Effects on Sprouting
Effects on Fruit Colour
 In Kashmir valley, the failure of apples to change into their specific
red shades or an increase of apples with sunburn. The deep red colour
is a result of low temperatures during night, in autumn, just before
harvesting. If the temperatures are not low enough, most apples fail
to turn into their specific red shades. For many apples, their red
colour is a trademark of quality but Ladakh province becomes
potential area for apple cultivation due to climate change

28. Effects on Chilling requirement
 Most deciduous fruit trees need sufficient accumulated chilling or
vernalization to break winter dormancy. Inadequate chilling due to
enhanced green house warming may result in prolonged dormancy,
leading to reduced fruit quality and yield. The low warming scenario,
less than 10C is unlikely to affect the vernalization of high chill fruit
(apple, walnut, apricot, almond, cherry varieties) and if warming
scenario exceeds 1.50C, it would significantly increase the risk of
prolonged dormancy for both stone and pome fruits. However, sweet
cherry requires the accumulation of 1000 chill units at 3.80C in order
to break dormancy. If chilling is inadequate, the development and/or
later expansion of leaf and flower buds may be impaired.

29. Effects on Pollination
More than 70 per cent of orchards have less than 20 per cent
pollinizer proportion, whereas a minimum of 30.33 per cent is
required in our agro-climatic conditions for good fruit set.
Moreover, there is a lack of diversity in pollinizing cultivars as
mainly Golden Delicious and Red Gold are being
predominantly use which have attained biennial bearing
tendency and their blooms seldom coincides with the
flowering of Delicious cultivars. Managed bee pollination is
very limited and available bee hives during bloom hardly meet
23 per cent of the demand. All these factors lead to poor fruit
setting of Delicious

30. Effects on High temperature
 High temperatures on fruit surface caused by prolonged
exposure to sunlight hasten ripening while in other cases
where grape berries exposed to direct sunlight ripened faster
than those in shaded areas within the canopy.
Cell wall enzyme activity (Cellulase and polygalacturonase)
was negatively correlated with fruit firmness indicating that
sun exposure i.e. Higher temperature during growth and
development can delay ripening.
(Lal, 2014)

31. Effects on High carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is important because carbon atoms form the
structural skeleton of the plant. A doubling of carbon dioxide
levels may increase plant growth by 4050% though
continuous high levels saturate the plant's ability to use
carbon dioxide and the benefits decrease with time. If other
factors remain favourable, increased carbon dioxide
concentrations will lead to greater rates of photosynthesis in
plants. Current carbon dioxide concentrations limit plant
photosynthesis. Growers of protected horticultural crops
have already aware from so many years that artificially raising
the concentration of carbon dioxide upto certain stage in
greenhouses can substantially increase crop growth and yield.
(Lal, 2014)

32. CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTING SUBTROPICAL FRUITS

33. Table 2: Agro-climatic requirement of some subtropical fruits
Climatic Requirement
Species Rainfall
(mm)
Opt. Temp.
(°C)
References
Citrus
(Citrus spp.)
1500-3000 23-27 Verjeij and Coronel (1992)
Mango
(Mangifera indica L.)
1000-2000 24-27 Devenport (2009)
Pummelo
(Citrus maxima L.)
1900-2400 23-30 Gaffar et al. (2008)
Litchi
(Litchi chinensis L.)
0-900 25-35 Tindall (1994);
Menzel et al. (1989)
Guava
(Psidium guajava L.)
0-1500 23-28 Morton (1987);
Verjeij and Coronel (1992)

34. Mango
 Abiotic stress includes drought, heat, flood, salinity, and chilling or freezing
stress. The consequences of such rapid change are - global warming, change
of seasonal pattern, excessive rain, melting of ice cap, flood, rising sea level,
drought, etc. leading to extremity of all kinds .
 Low temperature stress (Chilling and freezing stress )
Due to freezing injury the skin surface pitting, sunken lesion and skin
browning and pulp discolouration takes place in mango.
 High temperature stress
At high temperature, photosynthesis is inhibited before respiration. Spongy
tissue appear more severe due to increase temperature more then 40.5 C
 Water stress
Drought stress caused a great reduction in the emergence of vegetative
flushes during the stress period
 Flooding stress
Roots are injured in anaerobic soil water; Failure of oxygen deficient roots to
function injures shoots
 Salinity stress
Growth inhibition; Toxicity and injury; Nutritional imbalance

35. Freezing stress High temperature stress Drought stress
Flooding stress Salinity stress
Mango

36.  Temperature: Optimum temperature range- 210C to 270C
- Temperature goes below 00C young plants and new flushes will damage
permanently.
- Seed germination was rapid between 250C to 400C and seedling growth
during first fourth night after germination was optimum at 300C.
- Higher temperature during fruit development hasten maturity and
improve fruit size and quality. Prolong exposure of fruits at maturity to
temperature exceed 350C may cause sun burning.
- Spongy tissue observed more severe due to increase temperature above
40.50C. During high temperature the rate of transpiration increases from
leaves and young fruits and consequently sufficient quantity of moisture
withdrawn from fruits which are unable to withstand the stress and are
shade easily.
Spongy tissueBlack tip

37.  Rainfall: Rains during pre flowering and flowering period leads to
delayed flowering or to the production of vegetative flushes instead of
inflorescence.
-Cloudy weather at the time of flowering results in heavy flower drop. -
Increase in the population of hoppers.
- Heavy rains at fruit maturity results in reduction of fruit quality.
- Due to unusual rainfall pattern during development stage, delayed
maturity and low quality of fruits was reported in Dashehari mango. -
Anthracnose disease was found to be severe from June to September when
the temperature remains high accompanied by rain fall for number of days.
 Wind – High speed wind at the time of flowering and fruit set results in
flower and fruit drop.
 Relative humidity:
- High relative humidity was associated with fruit cracking in Dashehari
mango. Low humidity, high temperature and high winds causes May fruit
drop. Drop during day time is more than during night.
Anthracnose Fruit cracking

38.  Citrus fruit plants are considered to be better equipped to deal with a
changing climate than other fruit crops. That's largely because they flourish
in the heat.
 Lemon cultivation area will shrink by around 10 percent, that is a small
setback in comparison to other plant. Citrus greening, for example, is a
bacterial disease that is primarily spread by two types of psyllid insects. It
turns a citrus plant's leaves and shoots yellow and makes the fruit bitter,
often cause the wither away of entire plant.
 Citrus fruit production has declined by 1,000 tonnes in the Kangra district
(H.P.) in the last two years. Climate change is one major factor affecting the
fruit crop. It's not raining in time because of which, plants are not getting
proper nutrition and fruiting is declining gradually.
 High temperature and high evaporation during flowering and fruit set result
in low yield due to flower and fruit drop. The fruits have poor colour if the
temperature during fruit maturation is high. In Navel oranges, the content of
acidity was affected by low temperature leading to low TSS content.
 Among other climatic factors, the rainfall in September and October had an
obvious effect on the fruit soluble solids content whereas less rainfall in this
period increased the soluble solid
Citrus

39. Inadequate sun light causes production of inferior quality fruit and low yield.
- Low temperature of -6.6 0C to -4.4 0C is consider injurious to young trees, while
mature old trees are killed at a temperature of about -11.1 0C to -8.8 0C. The
average maximum temperature during May to August showed strong positive
correlation with the incidence and extent of granulation.
- Relative humidity: Low humidity usually favours better colour development of
fruits, while in more humid conditions fruits are more juicy with thin rind.
- Low humidity causes vigorous shaking of branches and fruits drop down.
- In high humid and heavy rainfall regions, fruit produce are inferior in quality
and have poor shelf life. Cracking in acid lime fruit occurred after heavy rain
following dry period of drought
- Wind: Hot winds and excessive heat during flowering and fruit set period are
highly detrimental for good bearing and causes fruit drop and sun burn of fruits.
CRACKING DUE TO DROUGHT Granulation Fruit drop

40.  Frost and Drought stress
• Grapevines are damaged by frost if it occurs during their active growth but
resting vines during winter are not affected in north and central India.
However, in peninsular India, where occasional frost is expected during
winter, there is adverse affect on the growing vines.
• Similarly, high temperature above 46°C causes thick skin of berries. Rainfall
quantity and duration and season influence discernible. Rainfall during
flowering and fruiting is detrimental. Increased humidity due to prolonged
rainfall makes fruits tasteless and there is skin cracking.
• High night temperature reduces anthocyanin accumulation in berry skin
which is due to low expression of anthocyanin biosynthesizing genes and
enzymes.
• Reduced number of berries per cluster due to high root temperatures (seen in
Cabernet Sauvignon).
• The soil temperature recorded so far in August has averaged 35°C (bare soil),
with readings as high as 41°C which resulted in earlier fruit maturation
(short term conditions).
Grapes

41. FrostDrought Skin cracking
•Delayed fruit maturation and a reduction in fruit quality (excessive and long
term conditions).
•Decline in total TA and increased pH through loss of malic acid.
•Increased mono and di-basic salts of tartaric acid.
•Reduced color development (anthocyanins) in red berries.
•Reduction in gas exchange capacity (although this is influenced by vapor
pressure deficit
•Reduction of leaf starch content.
•Reallocation of photosynthates, going to shoot tips at expense of roots,
trunks, and clusters.
•Increase in sucrose concentrations in all vine organs.

42.  Litchi is essentially a sub-tropical fruit which require protection from frost
free winter and dry hot summer.
 The young plants of litchi require protection from frost and hot desiccating
winds otherwise their growth and survival is affected.
 Bearing litchi trees are affected by hot winds causing fruit skin cracking and
sun bum.
 The observed temperature trends in the region of litchi production (Bihar)
showed a general increase in temperature in order of 2-3°C over the base
period of 50 years.
 The unusual impact of climate change has been witnessed in litchi production
system as noted in flowering pattern (shifted early), fruit growth and
harvesting periods.
 The occurrence and extent of damage by physiological disorders and
resurgence of pest are very much dependent on the temperature and
humidity variations in the atmosphere.
Fruit cracking in litchi
Litchi

43. • Red colour development on the peel of guava requires cool nights during
fruit maturation.
• Varieties like Apple Colour, which have attractive apple skin colour
under sub-tropical conditions of North India, have red spots on the skin
under tropical South Indian conditions.
• An increase of 0.2°C in temperature resulted into dramatic reduction in
the areas suitable for development of red colour in guava; an increase of
0.5°C in temperature will reduce the areas drastically with the suitability
probability of more than 97% to a very low level. Based on a future
climate database, predictions show that areas with suitability percentage
of less than 70% will be available for red colour guava development.
• Areas suitable for red colored guava cultivation will be reduced
dramatically because the minimum temperature during the coldest
month may increase up to 1.9°C, whereas, the mean temperature of the
coldest quarter will be 3.2°C higher than the existing temperature
resulting in less red colour development in guava fruits.
(Deshmukh, 2017)
Guava

44. High temperature during summer
coupled with low humidity has
been reported to reduce fruit set
and increase fruit drop.
Anthracnose disease of guava in rainy season
crop is greatly influence by number and
frequency of rainy days.
Due to heavy rains and high relative humidityStylar end rot

45. • Temperature – Optimum temperature ranges: 22 °C to 26 °C
• Low temperature (10 °C) inhibits growth and affect fruit development, less
flavor and sweetness in fruits.
• Extreme of low temperature during winter results in burning of leaves
followed anthracnose.
• High temperature during summer affect pollen fertility causing reduction
in fruit setting.
• High temperature induces more maleness in papaya plant. Powdery mildew
was more severe when the temperature between 16.4 °C to 22.92 °C
• Relative humidity between 65 to 86% with sunshine 6.2 hrs.
• Relative humidity – A relative humidity of 60% was reported to be essential
for optimum growth
Anthracnose in papaya Powdery mildew in papaya
Papaya

46. Impact of Climate change on temperate fruits
• Variation in temperature rise is visible (1980- 2009)
• Early melting of glaciers and floods
• Change in cropping pattern/systems
• Warmer and extended winters erratic changes
• Erratic and reduced winter precipitation and
• Snowfall
• Depletion of ground water and water scarcity

47. • Shift in apple cultivation towards higher altitude and cold
arid areas
• Shift in ecological zones
• Majority of the apple orchards in UK have become
unproductive over the year due to low chilling
• Incidence and resurgence of insect and diseases of
horticultural crops
• Mechanical damage during active growing stage directly
responsible for canker and gummosis
• Hail storms and low temperature during spring are common
phenomenon now.
• Crop failure in high chill fruit crops under low altitudes
• Dry spell during late spring and early summers

48.  Bud burst is advanced and the onset of growth occurs earlier as in apple
where most of the trees sprout 3 weeks earlier than normal sprouting (mid
April).
 Due to change in bud opening in March, they may become susceptible to
frost damage.
Occurrence of late snowfall- causes heavy
damage to almonds-coincided with full bloom
Apricot in bloom-coincided with late
winter snow fall
Effect on Flowering

49. • Apples fails to attain their characteristic deep red colour if night
temperatures are high
• High temperature and moisture stress increases sunburn and
cracking in apples, apricot, cherry, pomegranate etc.
Effect on Fruit quality

50. • Wetter, warmer winters favours
incidence of diseases like
Phytophthora, Fusarium etc.
• Drier, warmers summers favours
diseases such as Alternaria,
powdery mildew, sooty bark
diseases (under moisture stress)
• Warm and humid temperature
favours apple scab
• Very dry summers results in
increase in population of red
spider mite and aphids - more
problem of attacks on apple
(Orson,1999)
Effect of climate change on diseases and insects

51. • Crop improvement strategies
• Introduction of low chilling cultivars.
• Development of new genotypes having resistance to
high temperature
• Rainwater conservation
• Mulching
• Use of Anti- transpirants
• Precise Irrigation/Micro-irrigation
• Use of plant growth regulators
• Use of root stocks
• Precision farming
Mitigation of climate change

52. Resource conserving technologies (RCTs)
 Zero or reduced tillage- save fuel and improve water productivity.
 Land leveling practices help save water.
 Stress resistant genotypes
Conservation Horticultural practices
 Soil and water conservation measures
 Cover with Compatible and Profitable intercrops
 Minimum level of soil movement, e.g., reduced or zero tillage
 Soil cover with crop residues
The management of cropping systems
Changes in crop varieties
Changes in fertiliser and pesticide use
Main Adaptive Strategies: Short term

53. - Microclimate modification to improve water use efficiency
(e.g.windbreaks, inter-cropping, multi-cropping techniques).
- Changes in nutrient management to reflect the modified
growth and yield of crops, and also changes in the turn-over
of nutrients in soils, including losses.
- Changes in farming systems to maintain farms viable and
competitive (e.g. conversion of specialised farms in mixed
farms less sensitive to change in the environment).
Main Adaptive Strategies: Long term

54. Table 3: List of some variety tolerant to abiotic stress
S.No. Crop Variety Tolerant
1 Pomegrante Ruby Drought tolerant
2 Annona Arka Sahan Drought tolerant
3 Fig Deanna and Excel Drought tolerant
4 Grape (rootstock) Dogridge Salinity tolerant
5 Mango Bappakai Salinity tolerant
6 Lime Rangpur lime and
Cleopatra mandarin
Salinity tolerant
7 Citrus Orlando,Morton ,Swingle Drought tolerant
8 Apple Priscilla, Golden delicious, Golden
resistant, Mutsu Yellow spur
Drought tolerant
9 Pear Starkrimson ,Victoria, Beurre Hardy,
Clapps favourite
Drought tolerant
10 Plum Nikta ,Early, Bluefri Drought tolerant
11 Strawberry Blackmore ,Catskill Drought tolerant(Bose and Mitra , 1996)

55. Use of Anti-transpirants
Materials causing stomatal closure:
• Herbicides: like 2, 4-D, Phosphon D and Atrazine.
• Fungicides like Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA).
• Metabolic inhibitors like Hydroxyl sulfonates, Potassium metabisulphite etc.
• Growth hormones like ABA, Etheral, TIBA, Succinic acid, Ascorbic acid and
Cycocel (CCC).
Use of plant growth regulators (PGRS)
• .Spray of Cycocel & Mepiquat chloride
• Cytokinins and Salicylic acid
• Brassinolides increase the photosynthetic activity of the plants

56. Grow more resistant/ tolerant
varieties
Crop Rootstock/Cultivars
Citrus (Citrus spp.) Rangpur lime, Cleopatra mandarin,
Rough lemon, Tangelo, Sour orange,
Sweet orange, Citrange
Stonefruit (Prunus spp.) Marianna, Lovell, Shalil, Yunnan
Avocado (Persea americana Mill.) West
Indian Mexican
Grape (Vitis spp.) Salt Creek, 1613-3, Dog Ridge Grape
(Vitis spp.) Thompson Seedless,
Perlette, Cardinal, Black rose
Black rose Berries (Rubus spp.) Boysenberry, Olallie blackberry, Indian
Summer raspberry
Strawberry (Fragaria spp.) Lassen, Shasta
Table 4: List of cultivars tolerant to salinity stress

57. Introduction of low chilling cultivars
Low chilling Apple
There are few varieties adapted to mild winter climates (chill hours below 500)
Pear
Patharnakh, Gola, Leconte, Keiffer, Smith, Baghugosha, China Pear, Pineapple,
Baldwin, Tenn, Flordahome, Ayers Hood, Orient, Carnea, TsuLi, YaLi, P. calleryana
(rootstock requires 400 chilling hours)

58. APRICOT
LOW CHILLING PEACHES

59. Almond Walnut

60. These are based on in situ and ex-situ conservation of rain water for
recycling to fruit crops. This is one of the most important strategy not
only to control run off and soil loss. Innovative approaches in ground
water sharing can also contribute to equitable distribution of water
and reduced energy use in pumping
The technique of covering the soil with natural crop residues or plastic films
for soil and water conservation is called mulching.
In addition to soil and water conservation, improved yield and quality,
suppression of weed growth , mulches can improve the use efficiency of
applied fertilizer nutrients and also use of reflective mulches are likely to
minimize the incidence of virus diseases
Rain water conservation
Mulching

61. Precise irrigation
Water needs for irrigation can be met, in part, by practicing uniformity of
water application-precise irrigation with micro-irrigation that delivers water
from piped main lines and laterals directly to the root zone frequently and in
small amounts, and at rates matched to crop needs. This irrigation strategy
has shown to be the best method for saline waters. The net benefits of
micro irrigation improve markedly when such advantages are taken into
account. It has been found that up to 81 % water saving was observed in
lemon compared to flood irrigation with the over 35% increase in yield
( Bhansali, 2003). Similarly, ber, grapes and pomegranate recorded 45%
saving in water using drip irrigation

62. Managing High Temperature cooling with
sprinklers

63. The term cropping system refers to the crops, crop sequences and
management techniques used on a particular agricultural field over a
period of years
Cropping system= Cropping pattern + Management Types of
cropping systems in horticultural crops
 Mono-species orchards
- Mono-species also referred as monoculture. In this, fruit trees of a single
species are planted in the field.
- This system is common in modern horticulture, where trees are planted
densely, using dwarf or semi-dwarf trees with modified canopy to ensure better
light interception and distribution and ease of mechanization
 Multistoried cropping: Growing plants of different height in the same
field at the same time is termed as multistoried cropping
EXAMPLES OF SOME MULTISTORIED CROPPING
- Coconut+ banana - Coconut+ banana + pineapple
- Mango+ pineapple - Mango+ papaya+ pineapple
- Coconut+ jackfruit+ coffee+ papaya+ pineapple
- Coconut+ papaya+ pineapple Multiple cropping
Cropping System

64. Fruit Crop Vegetable crops
Mango Upto 5 years Leguminous vegetables,
Papaya (filler)
Grapes Upto 8 months Snake gourd or bitter gourd in
pandal
Apple, pears Upto 5 years Potato, Cabbage
Banana Upto 4 months Sunhemp, onion
Intercropping
Intercropping, as one of the multiple cropping systems, has been
practiced by farmers for many years in various ways and most areas,
and has played a very important role in India.
The recommended intercrops for some important horticultural crops
are given

65.  It refers to the practice of growing certain perennial crops in the alley
spaces of the main perennial crops.
 The main advantage is the effective utilization of available area and
increase in the net income of the farm per unit area.
 Extensive research conducted by CPCRI, Kassargode on mixed
cropping in coconut and arecanut plantations showed that cocoa,
pepper, cinnamon, clove and nutmeg can be grown as mixed crops in
coconuts while nutmeg and clove as mixed crops in between four
arecanut palms on alternate rows
Mixed cropping

66. Mango +groundnut
Crop diversification

67. • Development of disease insect forecasting system and
efficient management methods.
• Preparation of data base for development of model for
disease insect forecasting.
• Strengthening surveillance of pest and diseases
• To study the pattern of increasing climatic variability and
change could lead to rapid build up of pathogens and
insect pests
Plant protection strategies

68. Temperate orchards are in urgent need of climate change
adaptation strategies because of the high investments incurred in
orchard development and the long productive life span of trees
The need to anticipate and adapt to climatic changes is much
more urgent for growers of tree crops than for farmers engaging
in annual crop production
Annual farmers can change their crop species or varieties from
one season to the next, or they can plant their crops earlier or
later if they sense changes in the duration of the growing season
In contrast, once orchard managers have selected and planted
their tree cultivars, they require these trees to remain in
production for decades.
Orchard establishment is expensive, especially when low fruit or
nut yields during the first few years are considered. Short-term
adjustments in tree cultivars are thus very costly and would be a
severe economic blow to many growers
Adaptation strategies

69.  Horticulturists will have to play a significant role in the
climate change scenario and proper strategies have to be
envisaged for saving horticulture.
 Adopt conservation agriculture, using renewable energy,
forest and water conservation, reforestation etc. to sustain the
productivity modification of present horticultural practices
and greater use of green house technology are some of the
solutions to minimize the effect of climate change.
Development of new cultivars of horticultural crops tolerant
to high temperature, resistant to pests and diseases, short
duration and producing good yield under stress conditions, as
well as adoption of hi-tech horticulture and judicious
management of land use resources will be the main strategies
to meet these challenge.
Growers must therefore pay very close attention to growing the right
trees in the right places, or they must be equipped with an arsenal of
management tools to overcome slight climatic mismatches of cultivar
and climate (Luedeling 2012).
Adaptation strategies

70. FUTURE RESEARCH
STRATEGIES FOR OPTIMIZING
PRODUCTION UNDER
CHANGING CLIMATE SCENARIO

71. • Utilizing the current and future regional climatic scenarios of the tropical,
subtropical and temperate region. A micro-level survey of agro-climatic zones of
country should be conducted to identify sensitive regions with high vulnerability
with respect to different fruit crop.
• Evaluation of wild species should be probed thoroughly, which could be a
source of resistant genes for trying over adversaries of the temperature.
• Evaluation of local types and landraces should be carried out to locate useful
genotypes. Develop genotypes having resistance to heat and drought.
• Development of stable genotypes, which can perform across different
environments within the region, is needed.
There is a need to develop and test the performance of different genotypes
across several environments so that their suitability can be judged.
• Development or location of rootstocks that can tolerate biotic stresses induced
by temperature regimes is needed. In many crops, rootstocks have helped in
combating the biotic stress induced by varying temperature conditions.
Marker assisted selection and development of transgenic having resistance to
biotic and abiotic resistance.
• Biotechnological approaches for multiple stress tolerance will be standardized.
• Introduction of low chilling cultivars of pome, stone and nut fruits.
Crop improvement strategies

72. • Adoption of improved agro-techniques like mulching and cover crops
in orchards will help in bringing down the orchard temperature.
• Use of precision farming methods within the orchard thereby reducing
the temperature and providing an ideal microclimate.
• Sensitive stages of crops to weather aberrations will be identified.
• The phenology of all major fruit crops under changing climate will be
monitored.
• In-situ soil moisture conservation practices including indigenous
technical know-how will be validated to mitigate the impact of drought.
For ex situ conservation, fruit trees present a unique challenge
because, unlike cereals and legumes, fruit trees may not have seeds or
seeds may be recalcitrant or the varieties may need to be vegetatively
propagated. Hence a feasible method for conserving fruit trees ex situ is
in field gene-banks.
Development of agro-techniques

73. • To develop a set of high resolution daily based climate change
scenarios, suitable for analysis of agricultural extreme events.
• To identify climatic thresholds having severe impacts on yield, quality
and environment for representative crops and to assess the risks that
these thresholds will be exceeded under climate change
Plant protection strategies
•Assessment of the pest and disease dynamics, study of disease triangle
and development of prediction models.
• Strengthen surveillance of pest and diseases.
• Development of eco-friendly pest-ecologies and management
strategies and early warning systems.

74. Post-harvest management strategies
Development of cost effective storage techniques. Infrastructure like
cold storages, refrigerated vans is extremely important to reduce
transportation losses. Hence, adoption of cold chain management as
well as emerging new technology for preservation of fruit and
vegetables with changing environmental conditions.
Development of varieties having longer shelf life. Technologies need to
be refined to increase storage life of sub-tropical fruits like mango,
papaya and banana etc.
Studies on mitigation of postharvest spoilage and simulation models
need to be developed for forecast of field diseases and spoilage under
post- harvest loses.
HRD & creating awareness
• Organize seminars/ symposia/ trainings and conduct field
demonstrations, on effective climate resilient technologies.

75.  Climate change impacts are to be looked not in isolation but in
conjunction with all the aspect of horticulture and allied sectors.
 The effects of climate change on horticulture sector are still uncertain.
 In the light of possible global warming, researchers should give more
emphasis on development of heat-and drought-resistance crops.
 Research is needed to define the current limits to these resistances and the
feasibility of manipulation through modern genetic techniques
 Both crop architecture and physiology may be genetically altered to adopt
to warmer environmental conditions.
 Minimize the effects of climate change at farm, regional, national and
international level. It will help to provide a detailed picture of how world
horticulture could change.
 At the regional level, those charged with planning for resource allocation,
including land, water, and horticulture development should also take
climate change into account.
 Formulation and implementations of policies and other adaptations in
horticultural systems that would minimize the negative effects of climate
change and exploits the beneficial effect.
Conclusion

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