This document provides an overview of a lecture series on clastic depositional systems and their response to changes in base level. It describes the three main types of depositional systems - terrestrial, transitional, and marine. For marine systems, it focuses on coastal systems like wave-dominated coasts, tide-dominated coasts, and river-dominated deltas. It discusses the characteristics and facies of these coastal systems, and how they respond to changes in sea level. Diagrams and photos are provided as examples.

1. Clastic Hierarchies and Eustasy
Spring 2005
Professor Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
kendall@sc.edu
777.2410
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

2. Clastic Depositional Systems
Their Response
to
Base Level Change
Based, in part, on classroom lectures
by David Barbeau & Chris Kendall

3. Lecture Series Overview
Sequence stratigraphy & stratigraphic surfaces
 Basics: Ideal ‘sequence’ of Vail et al 1977 &
associated terminology
 Clastic system response to changing sea level and
rates of sedimentation - with movie
 Carbonate systems response to changing sea
level and rates of sedimentation - with movie
 Exercises – Sequence stratigraphy of carbonates
and clastics from chronostratigraphy, seismic,
outcrop and well log character

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

4. Sedimentary rocks are the
product of the generation,
transport, deposition, and
diagenesis of detritus and
solutes derived from pre-existing
rocks.

5. Sedimentary rocks are the
product of the creation, transport,
deposition, and diagenesis of
detritus and solutes derived from
pre-existing rocks.

6. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

7. Depositional Systems

depositional system: assemblage of multiple process-related
sedimentary facies assemblages, commonly identified by the
geography in which deposition occurs.
EX: nearshore depositional system, deep marine depositional system,
glacial depositional system, fluvial depositional system

NB depositional systems are:
modern features
used to interpret ancient sedimentary successions
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

8. Types of Depositional Systems
marine  ocean, sea
transitional  part land, part ocean
terrestrial  land
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

9. Clastic Depositional Systems
Terr
estr
ial
Tran
sitio
n al
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Mari
ne

10. Clastic Depositional Systems
Terr
estr
ial
Tran
sitio
na l
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Mari
ne

11. Clastic Depositional Systems
Terr
estr
ial
Tran
sitio
na l
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Mari
ne

12. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

13. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

14. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

15. Characteristics of Clastic System
 Critical stratigraphic signals of
system?
 Geomorphologic & tectonic setting
 Dominant sedimentary processes
 Facies
Subdividing surfaces
Lithology
Sedimentary structures
Geometries – Confined versus open
Fauna & flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

16. Types of Depositional Systems
marine  ocean, sea
terrestrial  land
transitional  part land, part ocean
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

17. Types of Depositional Systems
marine  ocean, sea
transitional  part land, part ocean
terrestrial  land
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

18. Marine Depositional Systems
 shallow/nearshore
tide-dominated
wave-dominated
reef
 shelf/platform
carbonate
clastic
 deep marine
deep sea fans
pelagic
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

19. Marine Depositional Systems
 wave-dominated coasts
 tide-dominated coasts
 fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas)
 carbonate reefs
 clastic shelves & platforms
 carbonate shelves & platforms
 deepwater fans
 pelagic abyssal plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

20. Coastal Depositional Systems
Form proximal to shorelines
 Geographically narrow, geologically important
 Fluid flow transport and deposition

Surface waves
Tidal waves (not tsunami!)
Fluvial input
Grain-size decreases with deeper water
 Onshore, offshore & longshore sediment transport
important
 Net sediment input (often from rivers) often leads to
progradational geometries
 Important for tracking sea-level changes

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

21. Coast Types
Dalrymple et al, 1992
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

22. Coast Types
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Dalrymple et al,
1992

23. Tidal Range and Coastal Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Hayes, 1979

24. Coast
Types
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

25. Marine Depositional Systems
 wave-dominated coasts
 tide-dominated coasts
 fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas)
 carbonate reefs
 clastic shelves & platforms
 carbonate shelves & platforms
 deepwater fans
 pelagic abyssal plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

26. Waves & Wave Periods
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

27. Characteristics of Beach Systems




Sediments coarsen upward from marine shales
Linear sand bodies parallel to basin margin, serrated margins landward
Formed by a mix of waves and tidal currents
Facies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during
– Dropping in base level
 Local channels
– Rising in base level
Wells sorted and rounded pure quartz arenites common
Sedimentary structures
–
–
–
Offshore hummocky wavy bedding
Nearshore cut and fill
Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds
Geometries
– Confined incised channels
– Open linear sheets parallel to shore
Fauna & flora
– Marine fauna at base of units
– Terrestrial flora at crest of units
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

28. Vertical stacking of shore line sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

29. Coast
Types
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

30. Beach Face - South Carolina Foreshore
Note High Energy Planar Beds
Photo: G. Voulgaris
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

31. Trough Cross-bed Current Ripples
Ordovician – Near Winchester
Kentucky
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

32. Offshore Coastal Profile - Hummocky
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

33. Coastal Profile
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

34. Geomorphology
of Coast
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

35. Coastal Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

36. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

37. Coastal Profile and Lithofacies
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

38. Coastal Lithofacies & Architecture
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Aigner & Reineck,
1982

39. Coastal
Lithofacies
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Reineck & Singh,
1980

40. Coastal Lithofacies
Walker, 1984
Progradation
Transgression
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Inlet

41. Hayes, 1979
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

42. Tide Versus Wave Domination
Hubbard et al., 1979
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

43. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

44. Coastal Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

45. Wave Dominated - Texan Coast
Note Storm Washover
Serrated Back Barrier
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

46. Wave Dominated - Texan Coast
r
ve r
o
sh rrie
Wa Ba
orm ack
St d B
o te a te
N rr
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Se
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

47. Wave Dominated - Texan Coast
r
ve r
o
sh rrie
Wa Ba
orm ack
St d B
o te a te
N rr
Se
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

48. Wave Dominated - Texan Coast
Note Storm Washover
Serrated Back Barrier
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

49. Note Storm Washover
On a Back Barrier
Pennsylvanian
Wave Dominated Coast

50. Coast
Types
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

51. Chenier Coast – Gulf of Carpentaria
Note Channels Reworking
Chenier Plain
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

52. Note Channels Reworking
Barrier Islands

53. Delta Mouth Bar - Kentucky
Note Incised Surface Of Reworked Bar
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

54. Tidal, Storm or Tsunami Channel
Note Incised Surface Beneath Channel
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

56. Characteristics of Sequence Boundary
(SB) from well logs, core & outcrop
Defined by erosion or incision of underlying flooding
surfaces (mfs and TS)
 Inferred from interruption in the lateral continuity of
these surfaces

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

57. Characteristics of Sequence Boundary
(SB) from well logs, core & outcrop
Defined by erosion or incision of underlying flooding
surfaces (mfs and TS)
 Inferred from interruption in the lateral continuity of
these surfaces

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

58. Beach Ridges: St. Phillips Island, SC
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

59. Progradation & Transgressive Architectures
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Kraft & John, 1979

60. Sea-Level Changes
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Reading, 1986

61. Tidal Bundles
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Visser, 1980

62. x
ix
atri
atr
dm
dm
mu
mu
0
0
0 /5
0 /5
d5
d5
Mu
Mu
es
tes
nat
iina
om
om
r ed
r ed
dp
dp
San
San
d n
d iin
San
San
d&
d&
San
San
Bedforms
Current Ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

63. Asymmetric Current Ripples
Upper Mississippian – Pennington Formation
Pound Gap
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

64. Base Level Change on Coast
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

65. Tidal Geomorphology
Kraft et al, 1987
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

66. Transitional Depositional
Systems
 Estuaries
 Deltas
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

67. Characteristics of Estuary Systems




Sediments coarsen upward from marine shales
Sand bodies perpendicular to basin margin, narrow landward
Formed by a mix of tidal currents and occasional storm waves
Facies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during
– Dropping in base level
 Local channels
– Rising in base level
Wells sorted and rounded pure quartz arenites common
Sedimentary structures
–
–
–
Offshore hummocky wavy bedding
Nearshore cut and fill
Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds
Geometries
– Confined incised channels
– Open linear sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore
Fauna & flora
– Marine fauna at base of units
– Terrestrial flora at crest of units
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

68. Estuarine Lithofacies
Horne et al, 1978
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

69. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

70. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

71. Marine Depositional Systems
 Wave-dominated coasts
 Tide-dominated coasts
 Fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas)
 Carbonate reefs
 Clastic shelves & platforms
 Carbonate shelves & platforms
 Deepwater fans
 Pelagic abyssal plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

72. Deltaic Depositional Systems
Form where rivers with large drainages meet standing
water bodies (~basins)
 Very large sediment flux
 Fluid & gravity flow transport and deposition

Surface waves
Tidal waves (not tsunami!)
Fluvial input
Turbidity currents & sub-aqueous debris flows
Net sediment input often leads to progradational
geometries
 Delta types depend on tidal range, wave climate, and
composition and depths of water in river and basin

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

73. Characteristics of Deltaic Systems




Sediments coarsen upward from marine shales
Sand bodies form tongues perpendicular to basin margin
Formed by a mix of fluvial input, tidal currents and storm waves
Facies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during
– Dropping in base level
 Local channels
– Rising in base level
Poorly sorted and irregular litharenites common
Sedimentary structures
–
–
–
Offshore laminated to hummocky wavy bedding
Nearshore cut and fill
Gently seaward dipping thin parallel beds
Geometries
– Confined incised channels
– Open linear sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore
Fauna & flora
– Marine fauna at base of units
– Terrestrial flora at crest of units
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

74. Coast Types
Dalrymple et al, 1992
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

75. Coast
Types
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

76. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

77. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

78. Lena River Delta - Russia
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

79. Shatt
al Arab
Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

80. Atachafalya Delta - USA
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

81. Amazon Delta - Brazil
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

82. Nile Delta - Egypt
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

83. Delta Types
 River-dominated
Small tidal range, weak storms and large
sediment flux build delta out into basin
 Tide-dominated
Large tidal ranges dominate transport,
deposition & geomorphology
 Wave-dominated
Strong and repeated storms rework delta
sediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

84. Delta Processes

Depositional patterns and geomorphology
depend on the relative dominance of three
competing processes at river mouths:
Inertia
– River water
– Basin water
Friction
– Water vs. substrate
– Water vs. water
Buoyancy
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

85. Delta Processes
Relative influence of inertia, friction & buoyancy is a
function of:
 Density contrasts
Homopycnal flow – equal density water bodies mix
Hyperpycnal flow – higher density sinks below ocean (Yellow)
Hypopycnal flow – lower density floats on ocean (Mississippi)
 Concentration, grain size and suspended vs. bedload
ratio
Water depths
Mouth
Basin
 Water discharge
 Water inflow velocity
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

86. Delta Processes

Inertia-dominated deltas
deep water, steep slopes, high river flow velocity
moderate sediment transport, large flow expansion

Friction-dominated deltas
shallow water, low slopes,
proximal sediment transport, large bars, limited flow
expansion
hyperpycnal flow possible

Buoyancy-dominated deltas
deep water, hypopycnal flow, large suspended load
distant sediment transport, flow rafting  plumes
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

87. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

88. Delta Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

89. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

90. River-Dominated Deltas
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

91. Lobe-Switching
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

92. Inter-distributary bays
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

93. Mahakam River-Dominated Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

94. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

95. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

96. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

97. Wave-dominated Grijalva Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

98. Bramaputra Delta - India
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

99. Tide-Dominated Niger Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

100. Tide-Dominated Niger Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

101. Delta
Successions
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

102. Delta Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

103. Wave-Dominated
Delta Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

104. Delta Collapse
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

105. Delta Collapse
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

106. Fan-Deltas
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

107. Deltaic Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

108. Deltaic Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

109. Deltaic Succession
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

110. Types of Depositional Systems
marine  ocean, sea
terrestrial  land
transitional  part land, part ocean
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

111. Marine Depositional Systems
 wave-dominated coasts
 tide-dominated coasts
 fluvial-dominated coasts (deltas)
 carbonate reefs
 clastic shelves & platforms
 carbonate shelves & platforms
 deepwater fans
 pelagic abyssal plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

112. Deep Sea
Depositional
Systems
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

113. Deep Sea Depositional Systems
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

114. Characteristics of Deepwater Systems




Sediments fine upward from marine fans
Sand bodies form lobes perpendicular to basin margin
Formed by a mix of fluvial input, and turbidite currents
Facies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during
– Migrating fan lobe fill
– Dropping in base level
 Local channels
– Rising in base level
Poor to well sorted litharenites common
Sedimentary structures
– Fining upward cycles that coarsen up as depo-center of lobes migrate
– Up dip channel cut and fill
– Gently seaward dipping thin parallel lobate sheets
Geometries
– Confined incised channels
– Open lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to shore
Fauna & flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
– Restricted Marine fauna often in over bank shales

115. Deep Sea Fan Depositional Systems
Form in the moderate to deep ocean, down-dip of
submarine canyons and often deltas
 Large sediment flux, high sedimentation rate, large
area
 Gravity flow transport and deposition

turbidity currents
subaqueous debris flows
suspension fall-out
Lobes and lobe-switching important
 Both coarse and fine grained sediment
 Often well-sorted and normally graded

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

116. Bengal Fan & Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

117. Submarine Canyons and Deep Sea Fans
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

118. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

119. Submarine Canyons
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

120. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

121. Submarine Canyons and Deep Sea
Fans
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

122. Submarine Fan Morphology
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

123. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

124. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

125. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

126. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

127. Submarine
Fan Types
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

128. Turbidity Currents  Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

129. Gravity Flows: Turbidity Currents
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

130. Turbidity Currents & Hemipelagic Sediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

131. Deep Water Fan Deposits
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

132. Deep Water Fan Deposits
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

133. Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

134. Coarse-grained Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

135. Coarse-grained Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

136. Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

137. Proximal Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

138. Distal Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

139. Soft-Sediment Deformation
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

140. Submarine Channels
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

141. Delaware Mountains – Basin Fans
Deepwater Channel
Cha n
nel S
a n ds
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Kendall Photo

142. Brushy Canyon Group - Base of Slope
Permian Basin
Channel Fill
Turbidites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Kendall Photo

143. Brushy Canyon Group - Base of Slope Permian Basin
Margin of submarine fan channel incised
into "overbank". Channel fill with
amalgamation as well as flowage & injection
of sand into the surrounding strata of the
channel walls.
Kendall Photo
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
U.S. Highway 62-180 south of Guadalupe Pass

144. Pelagic Depositional Systems
Form in the open ocean or open (large) lakes and seas
 Small sediment flux, very low sedimentation rate
 Suspended load current transport

Surface waves
Tidal waves (not tsunami!)
Fluvial input
Turbidity currents & sub-aqueous debris flows
Suspension fall-out deposition
 Fine-grained (clay, mud and silt) deposition

Carbonates
Siliciclastic mudstones
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

145. Pelagic Sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

146. Deep Marine Sedimentation
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

147. Pelagic Sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

148. Calcareous Microfossils
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

149. CCD
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

150. Abyssal Plains
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

151. Siliceous Microfossils
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

152. Siliceous Microfossils  Chert
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

153. Siliceous Microfossils  Chert
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

154. Aeolian Dust
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

155. Aeolian Dust
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

156. Aeolian Dust
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

157. Dropstones
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

158. Types of Depositional Systems
marine  ocean, sea
transitional  part land, part ocean
terrestrial  land
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

159. Terrestrial Depositional Systems
Alluvial Fan
 Fluvial
 Glacial
 Eolian
 Lacustrine
 Playa

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

160. Terrestrial Depositional Systems
Alluvial Fan
 Fluvial
 Glacial
 Eolian
 Lacustrine
 Playa

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

161. Alluvial Fan System Characteristics




Sediments fine upward within fan lobes
Sand bodies form lobes perpendicular to basin margin
Formed by a mix of fluvial input, and mass sediment movement
Facies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during
– Migrating fan lobe fill
– Dropping in base level
 Local channels
– Rising in base level
Poor to well sorted litharenite boulders, gravels and sands common
Sedimentary structures
– Fining upward cycles that coarsen up as depo-center of lobes progrdes
– Up dip channel cut and fill
– Gently seaward dipping thin parallel lobate sheets
Geometries
– Confined incised channels
– Open lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to Mt front
Fauna & flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
– Terrestrial flora can be common in over bank lobes

162. Alluvial Fan Depositional Systems
Form upon exit of drainage basin from a mountain front
 Mix of sediment gravity flow & fluid flow depositional
processes

Debris flows
Hyperconcentrated flows
Fluvial channels
Sheetfloods
Lobe-switching processes produce cone
 Radial sediment dispersal
 Decreasing grain size downslope

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

163. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

164. exit gorge
active lobes
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

165. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

166. Drainage & Depositional Basins
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

167. Alluvial Fan Architecture
Spearing, 1974
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

168. Alluvial Fans
Blair & McPherson. 1994
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

169. Alluvial Fan Architecture
Kelly & Olson, 1993
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

170. Alluvial and Fluvial Fans

‘Stream-dominated’ Alluvial Fans D = ~10 Km; S = 5-15º

‘Gravity-flow’ Alluvial Fans D = ~10 Km; S = 5-15º

Talus Cones D < 1 Km; S = 10-30º

Fluvial Megafans D = 50 -100s Km; S < 1º
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

171. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

172. Alluvial Fan Stratigraphy
Nemec & Steel, 1984
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

173. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

174. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

175. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

176. Stream-dominated AF Stratigraphy
Boothroyd, 1972
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

177. Gravity-Flow AF Stratigraphy
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Blair, 1987

178. Alluvial Fan Architecture
Gloppen
“Clastic Hierarchies” & Steel, 1980
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

179. Terrestrial Depositional Systems
Alluvial Fan
 Fluvial
 Glacial
 Eolian
 Lacustrine
 Playa

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

180. Fluvial System Characteristics




Sediments fine upward within channel fill
Sand bodies fine distally from channels
Formed by a mix of fluvial bedload, and fine suspended sediment
Facies
Subdivided erosion surfaces formed during
– Migrating channel fill
– Dropping in base level
 Local channels
– Rising in base level
Poor to well sorted litharenite gravels, sands and shales common
Sedimentary structures
– Fining upward cycles that fill channels
– Up dip channel cut and fill
– Gently dipping thin parallel lobate sheets perpendicular to channels
Geometries
– Confined incised channels
– Open lobate sheets perpendicular and occasionally parallel to channels
Fauna & flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
– Terrestrial flora can be common in over bank sediments

181. Fluvial Depositional Systems
Dominant conduit from regions of sediment
production (mountains) to sediment storage
(oceans, basins)
 Characterized by channel pattern

Meandering
Braided
Anastomozing
 Characterized by sediment load
Bedload
Suspended load
Mixed load

Unidirectional sediment dispersal
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

183. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

185. Fluvial Channel Patterns
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

186. Fluvial Channel Patterns
Schumm & Khan, 1972
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

187. Meandering Streams
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

188. Meandering Fluvial System
Allen, 1964
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

189. Thalwegs
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

190. Avulsion
Cross et al., 1989
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

198. Meandering Fluvial Architecture
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

199. Braided Fluvial Architecture
“Clastic Hierarchies” Nemec, 1992
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

200. Fluvial Channels
Hirst, 1991
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

204. Maturity
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

205. Fluvial Characterization
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Schumm, 1981

206. Fluvial Channel Patterns
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

207. Orton & Reading, 1993

208. Terrestrial Depositional Systems
fluvial
 alluvial fan
 glacial
 eolian
 lacustrine
 playa

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

209. GLACIERS
AND
GLACIATION

210. Past Glacial Periods
 Pre-Cambrian at end of Neoproterozoic eon
End of the Ordovician
 Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian]
through Permian
 Pleistocene

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

211. Glacial Periods
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

212. The Snowball Earth
During last ice age max, 21,000 years ago, North
America & Europe covered by glaciers over 2
kilometers thick, sea level dropped 120 meters.
Global chill : land & sea ice covered 30 %t of Earth,
more than at other times in last 500 million years
 Near end of Neoproterozoic eon (1000-543 million
years ago), glaciation immediately preceded first
appearance of recognizable animal life some 600
million years ago

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

213. Paul Hoffman & Daniel Schrag - Snowball Earth
Sun abruptly cooled or Earth tilted on its axis or
experienced an orbital blip that reduced solar
warmth or carbon dioxide increased?
 ice sheets covered continents & seas froze
almost to equator, events that occurred at least
twice between 800 million & 550 million years
ago
 Each glacial period lasted millions of years &
ended under extreme greenhouse conditions.
Climate shocks triggered evolution of
multicellular animal life, & challenge long-held
assumptions regarding the limits of global
change

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

214. Snowball
Earth
Rocky cliffs
along
Namibia's
Skeleton
Coast.
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

215. Snowball
Earth
Drop
Stones
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

216. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

217. Glacial System Characteristics
Signal extremes in local climate & sea level position
 Stratigraphic markers of glacial events
 Source of tillite (pebbles & larger fragments supported in
fine-grained matrix ) deposited from glaciers.

Massive tillite inferred deposited below ice sheets or dropping
from marine supported ice in submarine setting
Banded tillite may be deposited by ice sheets
Laminites common in lakes (Varve), Loess dust on land
 Supraglacial & pro-glacial deposits with stratified
conglomerates & sandstone
 U Shaped valleys & glacial striae
 Mountain glaciation could be source of much downslope
fluvial sediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”

Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

218. Simplified Glacial Systems signals
 Sediment signal a mix of:
Glacial carried & dumped in moraines
Water born fluvial sediment
Lacustrian varves
Aeolian loess
 Erosion:
U-shaped valleys
Eroded rock surface
– Grooved
– Plucked
– Striated
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
 Base level: changes in sea level.

219. Glacial Setting
Currently forms 10% of earths’s surface, Pleistocene
reached 30%, but in Pre Cambrian could have
reached 100%
Develop where all of annual snow doesn’t melt away
in warm seasons
Polar regions
Heavy winter snowfall e.g. Washington State
High elevations e.g. even equator
85% in Antarctica
10% in Greenland “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

220. Adelie Penguins Taking a Dive
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

221. Glacial Erosion
 Under glacier
Abrasion & plucking
Bedrock polished & striated
Rock flour washes out of glacier
Polishing and rounding
–
“Sheep Rocks”
Striations- scratches & grooves on rock
 Above glacier
Frost wedging takes place
Erosion by glaciers steepens slopes
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

222. Roche Moutone – Ice Sheet Plucking
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

223. Glacial Scarring
Of Bedrock
Findelen
Glacier
Switzerland
Matterhorn
In
Background
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

224. Glacial Sediments

Facies of continental glacial settings
Grounded Ice Facies
Glaciofluvial facies
Glacial lacustrine facies
– Facies of proglacial lakes
– Facies of periglacial lakes
Cold-climate periglacial facies

Facies of marine glacial settings
Proximal facies
Continental Shelf facies
Deepwater facies
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

225. Glacial Deposition
 Till
Unsorted debris in fine matrix
 Erratic
 Moraine- body of till
Lateral Moraine
Medial Moraine- where tributaries join
End moraine–
–
Terminal
Recessional
Ground moraine
Drumlin
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

226. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

227. Twenty Mile Medial Moraine
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

228. Robinson Tumbling Glacier Brit. Columbia
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

229. Ground and End Moraines
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

230. Glacial
Lakes
Ireland
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

231. Glacial Sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

232. Varves
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

233. Glaciation Subdividing Surfaces
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

234. Glacial Sediments

Facies of continental glacial settings
Grounded Ice Facies
Glaciofluvial facies
Glacial lacustrine facies
– Facies of proglacial lakes
– Facies of periglacial lakes
Cold-climate periglacial facies

Facies of marine glacial settings
Proximal facies
Continental Shelf facies
Deepwater facies
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

235. Glacial Systems - Conclusions
Signal extremes in local climate & sea level position
 Stratigraphic markers of glacial events
 Source of tillite (pebbles & larger fragments supported in
fine-grained matrix ) deposited from glaciers.

Massive tillite inferred deposited below ice sheets or dropping
from marine supported ice in submarine setting
Banded tillite may be deposited by ice sheets
Laminites common in lakes (Varve), Loess dust on land
 Supraglacial & pro-glacial deposits with stratified
conglomerates & sandstone
 U Shaped valleys & glacial striae
 Mountain glaciation could be source of much downslope
fluvial sediment
“Clastic Hierarchies”

Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

236. Simplified Conclusions Glacial Systems
 Sediment signal a mix of:
Glacial carried & dumped moraines
Water born fluvial sediment
Lacustrian varves
Aeolian loess
 Erosion:
U-shaped valleys
Eroded rock surface
– Grooved
– Plucked
– Striated
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
 Base level: changes in sea level.

237. AEOLIAN
AND
DESERTS

238. Going
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

239. Aeolian System – Desert & Coast
 Distribution of Aeolian systems – Holocene &
Ancient
 Deserts: Transport & Depositional Sytems
Wind & Fluvial Action
 Deposits of Modern Deserts
Dunes
Interdunes
Sheet Sands
 Aeolian Systems
 Bounding Surfaces
 Ancient Deposits
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

240. Simplified Desert Systems signals
 Sediment signal a mix of:
Aeolian sediment – dunes and sheets
Water born intermittent fluvial sediment
Playas and lakes
Aeolian loess
 Erosion:
Water table “Stokes Surfaces” marks limit
Incised valleys
Gravel remnants
Rock pavements
Ventifacts
 Base level: changes in ground water level.
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

241. Desert
 Region with low precipitation
Usually less than 25 cm rain per year
 Distribution
Most related to descending air
Belts at 30 degrees North & South latitude
Rain shadow of mountains
Great distance from oceans
Tropical coasts beside cold ocean currents
Polar desserts
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

242. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

243. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall
Earth's
General
Circulation

244. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

245. Rain Shadow Deserts
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

246. Deserts – Dune Factories
Common characteristics: Lack of through-flowing streams
 Internal drainage
 Local base levels
 Desert thunderstorms
Flash floods
–
Mudflows
Dominated by water transportation
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

247. Deserts – Depositional Systems
Dunes fed by water transported
sediment
 Margin rimmed by incised seasonal streams
(Wadiis or Arroyo)
 In turn flanked by alluvial fans and rock
pavements or bajada
 Intermittent drainage supplying sediment
 Dunes
 Playas
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

248. Bajada
“Pediment”
&
Alluvial
Fans
Namibia
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

249. Alluvial fans – Death
Valley
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

250. Salt Pan & Alluvial Fans – Death Valley
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

251. Sediment Source - Deserts & Coasts
 Abundant sediment supply (sand, silt)
 Favorable wind regimes
 Grain transport in wind
 Transport populations & resultant deposits
i. Traction (deflation pavements)
ii. Saltation (sand dunes)
iii. Suspension (loess)
III. Subenvironments of eolian dune systems
Dominated by water transportation
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

252. Wind Erosion and Transportation
 Sand
Moves along ground- saltation
Sandstorms
Sandblasting up to 1 meter
–
Ventifact
 Deflation
Blowout
 Dust storms
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

253. Sand Movement
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

254. Brice Canyon - Utah
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

255. Arches National Park – Utah
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

256. Wind Erosion and Transportation
 Dust storms
 Sand
Moves along ground- saltation
Sandstorms
Sandblasting up to 1 meter
–
Ventifact
 Deflation
Blowout
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

257. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

258. Wind Action
 Strong in desert because:
Low humidity
Great temperature ranges
More effective because of lack of
vegetation
 Effective erosion in deserts because
sediment is dry
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

259. Wind Erosion and Transportation
 Sand
Moves along ground- saltation
Sandstorms
Sandblasting up to 1 meter
–
Ventifact
 Deflation
Blowout
 Dust storms
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

260. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

261. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

262. Wind Erosion and Transportation
 Sand
Moves along ground- saltation
Sandstorms
Sandblasting up to 1 meter
–
Ventifact
 Deflation
Blowout
 Dust storms
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

263. Red Sea Dust Storm
RedSeaDustStorm
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

264. North Africa - Sea Dust Storm
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

265. Wind Erosion and Transportation
 Dust storms
Wind-blown dust accumulates in the deep
ocean floor at a rate of 0.6 x 1014 g/year.
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

266. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

267. Loess
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

268. Wind Deposition
 Loess
 Gravel Pavements
Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”
 Sand Dunes
Well-sorted, well-rounded sand grains
Slip face
–
Angle of repose
Wind ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

269. Desert Pavement Formation
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

270. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

271. Wind Deposition
 Loess
 Gravel Pavements
Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”
 Sand Dunes
Well-sorted, well-rounded sand grains
Slip face
–
Angle of repose
Wind ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

272. Wind Deposition
 Loess
 Gravel Pavements
Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”
 Sand Dunes
Well-sorted, well-rounded sand grains
Slip face
–
Angle of repose
Wind ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

273. Barchan Dunes - Jordan
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

274. Zion National Park - Utah
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

275. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

276. Wind Deposition
 Loess
 Gravel Pavements
Desert varnish & “petroglyphs”
 Sand Dunes
Well-sorted, well-rounded sand grains
Slip face
–
Angle of repose
Wind ripples
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

277. Dune Evolution
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

278. Hierarchies exhibited by aeolian
and associated sediments
 Grains
 Ripples
 Dunes
 Interdune unconfined sheets
 Confined bodies of wadii channel fills
 Playa unconfined sheets of heterogenous
chemical, wind and water transported
clastic sediments
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

279. Mechanisms of Aeolian Transportation
Rolling: 2-4 mm
 Surface creep
 20-25% of sand moves by grains shifted by
impacting saltating grains < 2 mm
 Suspension: fine sand, silt, clay
 Grains 0.1 mm are most easily moved by
wind; mostly > 2 m above the ground
surface

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

280. Mice Tracks &
Ripples
White Sands, NM
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

281. Ripples on Dune
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

282. Wind Deposition
 Types of dunes
Barchan
Transverse dune
Parabolic dune
Longitudinal dune
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

283. Salt Pan – West Texas, El Capitan
BARCHAN
LONGITUDINAL
TRANSVERSE
PARABOLIC
BARCHINOID
STAR
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

284. Star Dunes – Namibia
North Africa - Sea Dust Storm
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

285. Sahara – Barchans & Camels
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

286. Navajo Sandstone
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

287. Cross-bedded Navaho Sandstone
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

288. Navajo
Sandstone
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

289. Quaternary of UAE – Stokes Surface
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

290. Navajo
Sandstone
Base level change
punctuates the
sandstone with
erosion surfaces!
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

291. Navajo
Sandstone
Base level change punctuates the
sandstone with erosion surfaces!
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

292. Navajo
Sandstone
Base level change punctuates the
sandstone with erosion surfaces!
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

293. Some characteristics of deserts
 Stream channels normally dry
covered with sand & gravel
Narrow canyons with vertical walls
 Resistance of rocks to weathering
Desert topography typically steep and angular
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

294. Aeolian Sediment - Critical Character
Aeolian sediments evidenced by x-bedding with
high angle (30-34 degrees)
 Horizontal thin laminae common locally
 Sand rounded and frosted
 Quartz coated by iron oxide suggests hot arid
and/or seasonally humid climate (exceptions)
 Well Sorted: often unimodal but if bimodal two
populations present
 Silt and clay minimal

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

295. Aeolian Sediment - Critical Character
Small & large scale cross bedding, with multiple
orientations within horizontal bedding
 Grains in laminae well sorted, especially finer
sizes, sharp differences in size between lamina
 Size ranges from silt (60 mu) to coarse & (2mm)
 Max size transported by wind 1 cm but rare grains
over 5 mm
 Larger grains (0.5 - 1.mm) often well rounded
 Sands free of clay and clay drapes rare
 Uncemented sands have frosted surfaces
 Mica usually absent

Rules of thumb - Glennie1970
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

296. Aeolian sediment interpretation
Analyse sedimentology & internal architecture
with outcrop, cores and downhole imaging
 Identify & seperate single aggradational units
bounded by regional deflation surfaces (deepscoured to flat surfaces)
 Genetic models from cyclic recurrence in facies
 Aggradation characterises near- continuous
accumulation
 Internal facies evolution related to differences in
sediment budget & moving water table
 Palaeosols provide evidence of climate change

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

297. Conclusions - Desert Systems - Simplified
 Sediment signal a mix of:
Aeolian sediment – dunes and sheets
Water born intermittent fluvial sediment
Playas and lakes
Aeolian loess
 Erosion:
Water table “Stokes Surfaces” marks limit
Incised valleys
Gravel remnants
Rock pavements
Ventifacts
 Base level: changes in ground water level.
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

298. LAKE
AND
ORGANICS

299. Lakes
Are
Ephemeral

300. Lacustrian Systems
 Critical characteristics of
system?
 Geomorphologic & tectonic setting
 Dominant sedimentary processes
 Facies
Subdividing surfaces
Lithology
Sedimentary structures
Geometries – Confined versus open
Fauna & flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

301. Lake Systems – Simplified Signals
 Sediment signal a mix of:
Lake Center –sheets and incised & unconfined turbidite cycles
Margins marked by alluvial fans & fluvial sediment
Reducing setting that favors organic preservation
Signal cycles in order from:
– Clastics & organics
– Limestone & organics
– Evaporites & organics
 Base level: changes in ground water level
 Origin of large lakes:
Continental break up
Continental collision
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Sags on craton
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

302. Significance of Lake Systems
Signal extremes in local climate & geochemistry
 Stratigraphic markers (Organics trap radioactive minerals)
 Major source of hydrocarbons along Atlantic Margins
 Major source of oil shale & gas in western USA & Canada
 Major source of

Trona (Hydrated Sodium Bicarbonate Carbonate)
Borax (Hydrated Sodium Borate)
Sulfohalite (Na6ClF(SO4)2)
Hanksite (Sodium Potassium Sulfate Carbonate Chloride)
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

303. Lake Geomorphologic & Tectonic Setting
Temporary features forming 1% of earths’s land surface, filling:-




Major rifted, & faulted (Break-up) continental terrains – E. Africa
Major final fill of foreland basin – Caspian & Aral
Continental sags – Victoria, Kenya, Uganda, and Eyre
Glacial features including:
Moraine damming and/or ice scouring – Great Lakes
Ice damming


Landslides or mass movements
Volcanic activity including:
Lava damming
Crater explosion and collapse – Crater Lake


Deflation by wind scour or damming by wind blown sand - Fayum
Fluvial activity including
Oxbow lakes
Levee lakes,
Delta & barrier island entrapment
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

304. Mix of
high
salinity to
fresh
water,
organic
rich to
evaporiti
c
Initial
Breakup
A Salt
Filled
Basin
May be
Created
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

305. Lake Tanganyika
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

306. Lake Tanganyika
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

307. Lake Tanganyika
Lake levels have varied historical and earlier
 Fossil and living stromatolites abundant around
the margins of Lake Tanganyika, Africa provides a
source of paleolimnologic and paleoclimatic
information for the late Holocene
 late Holocene carbonates suggests that the
surface elevation of the lake has remained near
the outlet level, with only occasional periods of
closure
 In past the lake draw down encouraged
evaporites

“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

308. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

309. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

310. Lakes formed
between
splitting
continents
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

311. I so
la t
Be
lt o ed lin
d r a f i n te e a r
ina rio
ge r
Restricted
Entrances
To Sea
Organic Rich Lake Fill
Regional
Drainage
Away
From Margin
Arid Tropics Air System
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Wide Envelope of St. C. Kendall
Christopher G. surrounding continents

312. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

313. Lakes flanking Major Mountain Chains
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

314. Caspian and the Arral Sea
 Bodies of fresh to saline water trapped on
craton behind major mountain chains
 Tend to act as traps to clastics, carbonates
and evaporitic sediments
 Climatic change is recorded in the record
of the sediment fill
 Water draw down encourages evaporites
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

315. Caspian
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

316. Aral Sea
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

317. Great Lakes
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

318. Great Lakes
 Bodies of fresh water trapped on glacially
scoured depressions on craton behind
glacial moraines
 Act as traps to clastic sediments
 Climatic change is recorded in record of
sediment fill
 Water draw down encourages precipitates
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

319. Switzerland
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

320. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

321. Ice Dammed Lake – Alaska
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

322. Lake Response to Stratification
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

323. Lake Sedimentary facies
 Sedimentary signal like that of a foreshortened
Marine setting
 Narrow shores with beaches and deltas
 Finer sediments and turbidites fill the lake center
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

324. Lake Sedimentary facies







Presence of freshwater fossils
Lake sediments commonly better sorted than fluvial and periglacial
sediments
May (or may not) display a tendency toward fining upward and
inward towards the basin center
Lake sediments are predominantly fine grained sediments either
siliciclastic muds but may be carbonate sediments and evaporates
Typical sequence may produced as the lake dries up with a
coarsening upward sequence from laminated shales, marls and
limestones to rippled and cross-bedded sandstone and possibly
conglomerates
Lake sediment fill often shows cyclic alternation of laminae
Varves produced by seasonal variations in sediment supply and
lake circulation which changes the chemistry of the lakes
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

325. Lacustrian sedimentary geometries
 Shore marked by linear beaches
 Coarse to fine slope
 Deeper water lake laminae and turbidites
 Eclectic clastic and evaporitic sedments
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

326. Green
River
Lake
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

327. Green River Lake Fill
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

328. Green
River
–
Systems
&
Facies
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

329. Green River Section
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

330. Green River Section
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

331. Green River
Section
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

332. Green River
Fauna & Flora
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

333. East African Lake Margin
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

334. “Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

335. Green River Section
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

336. Conclusions - Lake Systems
 Sediment signal a mix of:
Lake Center –sheets and incised & unconfined turbidite cycles
Margins marked by alluvial fans & fluvial sediment
Reducing setting that favors organic preservation
Signal cycles in order from:
– Clastics & organics
– Limestone & organics
– Evaporites & organics
 Base level: changes in ground water level
 Origin of large lakes:
Continental break up
Continental collision
“Clastic Hierarchies”
Sags on craton
Christopher G. St. C. Kendall

337. Lakes
Are
Ephemeral

338. End of the Lecture
Lets go for lunch!!!