This document discusses the three states of matter - gases, liquids, and solids. It describes the properties and behavior of particles in each state. Gases have no fixed shape or volume and particles are far apart. Liquids take the shape of their container and particles have limited movement. Solids have fixed shape and volume, particles are touching and arranged regularly in crystalline structures. The document then examines the kinetic theory of gases and ideal gas laws. It discusses limitations of ideal gas behavior and different solid state structures like ionic, metallic, molecular and giant molecular lattices. Ceramics and their properties are also covered. Finally, the importance of conserving resources through metal recycling is discussed.

1. Chemistry AS level Cambridge University press
By: Danica Prinzessin (Danica Putri)

2. States of matter
Gas:
1. No fixed shape
or volume
2. Randomly
arraged
3. Far apart, can
be compressed
4. Move freely in
all directions
Liquid:
1. Follow the shape of the
container
2. Close together
3. Fixed volume
4. Compressed slighty
5. Arraged fairly randomly
6. Limited movement in all
directions
Solid:
1. Fixed shape and volume
2. Touching each other
3. Can’t be compressed
4. Regular arrangement
5. Can vibrate only

3. diagram of objects changes in form

4. The Gasseous State
Kinetic Theory of Gases:
1. The gas molecule move rapidly and
randomly.
2. The distance between the gas molecule
is much greater than the diameter of the
volume.
3. No attraction or repulsion between the
molecules.
4. All collision between particle are elastic.
5. The temperature of the gas is related to
the average kinetic energy of the
molecules.
Ideal Gases:
The volume depends on:
1. Pressure, measure in pascals (Pa)
2. Temperature, measure in Kelvin (K), 0
celcius=273K
General gas equation:
General gas equation
Gas pressure
Where:
p=pressure [Pa; N / m2]
V=volume [m3]
m=mass [kg]
M=molar mass [kg / kmol]
R=general gas constant R = 8.314510 kJ /
(kmol K)
T=thermodynamic temperature [K]
n=molecular number density [1 / m3]
k=Boltzmann's constant k = 1.380 x10-
23 J/K
General gas e.q combined with the gass
law:

5. Limitations of the ideal gas laws:
Real gas don’t obey the K.E.Theory in 2
ways:
1. There isn’t zero attraction between the
molecules.
2. Can’t ignore the volume of the
molecules themselves.
These differences are especially noticeable
at very high pressures and very lown
temperatures, under this conditions:
1. The molecule are close to each other.
2. Not negligible volume compared with
the volume of the container.
3. Van der Waals’ or dipole-dipole forces
attraction.
4. Attractive forces pull the molecules
towards each other.
5. The effective volume is smaller than
expected for an ideal gas.
Deviated to ideal gas: HCl
Not approaches ideal gas behavior: NH4
Approaches ideal gas behavior: He

6. The Liquid State
Boiling Point:
Liquid to Gass
 Energy transferred make the particles move faster.
 The forces attraction of the prticles weaker.
 The particle with most energy are the first to
escape from the forces holding.
 Evaporates.
 Move fast and randomly , then the particles spread
out.
Melting Point:
Solid to Liquid
The particles vibrate more vigorously.
The forces attraction of particles are weaker.
 Temperature is higher than 0 degree
celcius.
Freezing Point:
Liquid to Solid
Loss kinetic energy.
Increasing forces attraction of particles .

7. The Solid State Lattice:
Ions, atoms, or molcules
arrangement in the solid
substance.
Structure of solid
1. Ionic lattices
Characteristic:
 Hard.
 Brittle.
 High melting points.
 High boiling points.
 Many of them are soluble in water.
 Only conduct electricity when molten or
in solution.
Giant Ionic: (e.g. NaCl, MgO)
 Dissolvent in water.
 Free ions.
 Conduct electricity.
Ionic bond of NaCl, it also
Giant ionic same as MgO

8. 2. Metallic Lattices
Characteristic:
 The layers can slide over each other.
 Delocalised elestron.
 Lattice of kations.
 Shiny.
 Malleable.
 Conduct electricity.
 When the layer slide, new metallic
bond are easily re-formed between
ions.

9. Mixture of 2 or more metals or metal
with non-metal.
The metal added to create the alloy
becomes part of the crystal lattice of
the other metal.
Characteristic:
 The presence of different sized
metal ions makes the arrangement
of tle lattices less regular.
 Layers can’t slide easily.
 Stronger than pure metal.
e.g.
1. Zinc 30% and Copper 70%.
2. Aluminium with other elements (such as
coper, magnesium, silicone, manganese).
3. Alloys

10. 4. Simple molecular
Characteristic:
Can forms crystals.
Weak van der waals’ forces.
Strong covalent bonds.
Easily broken when heated
Forms crystal lattice.
Allotrops: different crystalline or
molecular forms of the same element.
Hydrogen bond:
H binds with element F,N, and O
Characteristic:
 High boiling point
 Interact with other atoms are negative or
electron-rich.
Iodine crystal and its’
structure

11. 5. Giant mollecular structure
Graphite
The carbon atoms are arranged in
planar layer, form hexagon layers.
Each carbon atom is joined to 3 other
carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds.
4th electron of each carbon atom
occupies at p orbital.
Softness, the layers can slide.
Good conductor of electricity.
High melting and boiling points.
e.g. Pencil, lubricant.

12. Diamond
 Each carbon atom forms 4 covalent
bonds with other carbon atoms.
 High melting points and boiling
ponts.
 Hardness.
 Doesn’t conduct electricity or heat.
Artifical diamonds can be made by
heating other forms of carbon under
high pressure.

13. Silicon (IV)oxide
 Structure smiliar to diamond.
 Each oxygen atom is bonded to only
2 silicon atoms.
 Each silicon atom is bonded to 4
oxygen atoms.
 Colourless crystals.
 High melting point and boiling
point.
 Doesn’t conduct electricity.
 Hardness.

14. 6. Ceramics
Ceramics: An inorganic non-metallic
solid which is prepared by heating a
substance or mixture of substances to a
high temperature.
Characteristic:
 Very high melting point and boiling
points.
 Don’t conduct electricity, they’re
electrical insulators.
 Don’t conduct heat, no free
electrons.
 Retain strength at high temperature
above 550 degree celcius
(refractories).
 Hard.
 Unreactive chemically.

15. Uses of ceramics:
 Ceramics containing Magnesium
oxide:
 Refractory in furnace linings.
 Electrical insulators in industrial
electrical cabel.
 Fire resistant wall furnaces.
Ceramics containing Aluminium
Oxide:
 Refractory in furnace linings.
 As an abrasive for grinding hard
materials.
 In transparent aluminium oxide for
furnaces and military vechiles.
Ceramics containing silicon(IV)oxide:
 Refractory in furnace linings.
 As an abrasive.
 Manufacture of glass.

16. Conserving material
 There is only a limited supply of
metal ores in the earth.
 Huge wasre dumps and landfill sites
scarring the landscape and problem
swith litter.
Recycling advantages:
 Saves energy.
 Conserves supplies of the ore.
 Less waste.
 Landfill sites don’t get filled up
fast.
 Cheaper than extracting the
metal from the ore.

17. 2 metals are easily to recycle:
Copper and Aluminium.
Copper:
Less energy is needed to extract
and refine the recycled copper.
Less energy is needed to recycle
copper than is needed to transport
copper ore to the smelting plant
and extract copper from it.
Aluminium:
Isn’t necessary to extract the
aluminium is much cheaper than
extracting aluminium from bauxite
ore.
Doesn’t need the treatment of
bauxite.
The aluminium scrap needs less
energy to melt it.
The expensive electrolysis of
aluminium oxide doesn’t need to
be carried out.

18. Thanks