Chapter12: Ethics
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This document discusses different theories of moral realism and anti-realism. It presents the views of moral realism, which claims that objective moral facts exist independently of human beliefs and attitudes. It also discusses anti-realism and skepticism, which reject or are uncertain about the existence of objective moral truths. The document then examines arguments from relativity and queerness against moral realism, before analyzing radical moral nihilism and J.L. Mackie's defense of that view.
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Module 3 Overview
Egoism and Relativism; Pluralism and Pragmatism
Welcome to Module Three. Is it wrong to smoke marijuana? Is it unethical to get an abortion? Recently, several states and municipalities have passed ordinances and ballot initiatives legalizing the use of marijuana. Also, some states have severely restricted access to abortion, whereas others have not. Are these actions right or wrong and ethical or unethical depending on physical boundaries or jurisdiction rule? This module will explore egoism, moral relativism, pluralism, and pragmatism in the context of real-world issues.
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Waller, B. N. (2011). Consider ethics: Theory, readings, and contemporary issues (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Chapters 2 and 6.
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Häyry, M. (2005). A defense of ethical relativism. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 14(1), 7-12.
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Egoism and Relativism; Pluralism and Pragmatism
Chapter 2 Lecture Notes: Egoism and Relativism
Egoism
Psychological egoism is the view that all of our behavior is selfish or self-interested as a matter of empirical psychological fact. Although several convincing examples can be given in support of selfish or self-interested behavior, psychological egoism, as a scientific theory, fails the test of falsifiability. If psychological egoism is a scientific account of human behavior, then one should able to state what would count as evidence against the position. But all acts that might count against the theory are immediately reinterpreted in terms of selfishness or self-interest. Thus, psychological egoists tend to espouse a belief and not an empirically testable claim. Additionally, the psychological egoist appears to conflate the notions of selfishness, self-interest, and satisfaction.
Ethical egoism is the view that we ought to always act in a way that is self-interested. Unlike psychological egoism, ...
Chapter 12
This chapter discusses the fact-value problem in metaethics and different theories that have attempted to address it. It introduces Hume's view that one cannot derive ought from is, Moore's naturalistic fallacy that you cannot define goodness in natural terms, and Ayer's emotivism which holds that moral statements express attitudes rather than having truth values. It also covers prescriptivism proposed by Hare which sees moral judgments as having both descriptive and prescriptive elements.
ethics-powerpoint.pptx
This document discusses the key branches and areas of ethics. It begins by explaining that ethics is the branch of philosophy concerned with concepts of right and wrong conduct. It then outlines the four main areas of ethics: value theory, which examines what constitutes a good life; normative ethics, which proposes moral theories and principles of right action; metaethics, which examines the nature of ethics; and applied ethics, which addresses practical problems in various fields. The document provides examples and explanations of theories within each area, such as utilitarianism and deontology in normative ethics, and cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism in metaethics. It concludes by emphasizing some important distinctions for doing ethics, such
Cultural Relatvism
Cultural relativism argues that (1) different cultures have different moral codes, (2) there is no universal moral truth, and (3) one cannot judge another culture's moral codes as better or worse. However, this view has limitations. If taken to the extreme, cultural relativism implies that harmful practices cannot be criticized as long as a culture allows them. Most argue some moral values like protecting life are universal. Cultural relativism is a useful reminder not to assume one's own culture is objectively best, but it does not preclude all judgments across cultures.
culturalrelatvism-141114084513-conversion-gate02.pdf
Cultural relativism argues that (1) different cultures have different moral codes, (2) there is no universal moral truth, and (3) one cannot judge another culture's moral codes as better or worse. However, this view has limitations. If taken to the extreme, cultural relativism implies that harmful practices cannot be criticized as long as a culture allows them. Most argue some moral values like protecting life are universal. Cultural relativism is a useful reminder not to assume one's own culture is objectively best, but it does not preclude all judgments across cultures.
Chapter 2: Ethical Relativism
The document discusses several perspectives on morality including ethical relativism, which holds that moral principles are valid relative to culture rather than being universal. It also mentions moral skepticism, objectivism, absolutism, and nihilism. Additionally, it covers the diversity thesis, dependency thesis, subjectivism, conventionalism, and criticisms of ethical relativism regarding cultural changes over time and difficulties with determining moral truths across societies.
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PHI 107 Module 1 NotesModule 1 Reading AssignmentWaller, B. N.docx
PHI 107: Module 1 Notes
Module 1 Reading Assignment
Waller, B. N. (2011). Consider ethics: Theory, readings, and contemporary issues (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Chapters 1 and 3.
NOTE: Bookmarking pages in this site, especially the resources you access with the link above, is not recommended.
Please view Part 1 of the Online Presentation for Module 1.
Please view Part 2 of the Online Presentation for Module 1.
Thinking about Ethics, Emotions, and Intuitions
Chapter 1 Lecture Notes: Thinking about Ethics
Ethics and Critical Thinking
Ethics requires that we have a definite grasp on the questions to which we seek answers. Understanding ethical questions requires being able to identify which premises are relevant to the conclusion. Changing one's beliefs in light of better arguments or new information is a sign of clear and honest thinking. We must therefore be aware of bad reasoning or fallacies when discussing ethical questions. Bad forms of reasoning include the following: red herring/irrelevant reason, ad hominem, principle of charity, strawman fallacy, and inconsistency. The red herring/irrelevant reason fallacy is a fallacy in which an irrelevant issue is given as a reason for accepting a certain conclusion. For example, if I say “We should ban rated-R movies because murder is wrong,” I have presented an irrelevant reason for banning R-rated movies, as the question is not whether murder is wrong, but whether such movies lead to murder. The ad hominem fallacy is an attack on the arguer as opposed to an attack on the argument itself. If I claim that someone is wrong because they are a bad person, I have committed an ad hominem because I have attacked the character of the arguer, not the reasoning of the argument itself. Arguments stand on their own, regardless of who presents them, and must be evaluated thusly.
When engaging in ethical discussions and philosophical discussions in general, it is important to remember the principle of charity. The principle of charity states that you should approach an opponent’s argument as generously and honestly as you can. This means that you should not misrepresent an argument in order to make it more easily defeated. Doing this is called a strawman fallacy, where you defeat an argument by distorting it.
Ethical reasoning also requires that one’s beliefs are consistent with each other. If I accept a belief, I must accept all accompanying implications of the belief as well; otherwise my beliefs will suffer from inconsistency, thus rendering them arbitrary and unreasonable.
Studying Ethics
It is not the intention of this course to make you a better person, but to examine a number of conflicting moral positions and help you see where your views might fit. What kinds of truths are ethical truths? Are they eternal, absolute and universal, and known only by some special power; or are they more common ordinary facts that are part of our world that can be known by ordinary means? Philos.
Chapter 2
Ethical relativism holds that there are no objective moral standards and that right and wrong are defined by cultural and individual perspectives. Relativists argue that moral diversity and uncertainty across cultures and situations show the lack of universal standards. However, critics argue that moral diversity does not necessarily mean an absence of shared principles, and uncertainty in deciding right from wrong does not imply its nonexistence. Relativism is also said to promote tolerance, but forcing acceptance of all practices risks discomfort and prevents questioning customs, including one's own.
Subjectivism and Cultural relativism-1.pdf
Subjectivism and moral relativism hold that:
1) Individual attitudes determine right and wrong, as moral judgments are neither true nor false but merely expressions of personal views.
2) David Hume argued morality is based on natural human feelings and passions rather than reason, making morality subjective.
3) If morality is subjective, it is difficult to understand how one could be mistaken in their moral views or how societies establish shared values and authority over behavior.
Module 7 OverviewEthical Nonobjectivism and Moral RealismWelco.docx
Module 7 Overview
Ethical Nonobjectivism and Moral Realism
Welcome to Module Seven. Are there moral truths? Is it actually wrong to lie, or do we just believe it is wrong? Moral nonobjectivists claim that there are no objective moral truths; that is, moral truths exist apart from ourselves. If tomorrow it suddenly became legal to leave a store without paying for an item, would you do it? Would your friends participate? This module assesses moral objectivism and moral nonobjectivism.
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
3D
examine the reasons why moral realism might fail.
6G
describe moral nonobjectivism.
6H
discuss the nature of ethical nonobjectivism.
6I
explain the modesty of moral realism.
Module 7 Reading Assignment
Waller, B. N. (2011). Consider ethics: Theory, readings, and contemporary issues (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Chapters 10 and 11.
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Please view the Online Presentation for Module 7.
Ethical Nonobjectivism and Moral Realism
Chapter 10 Lecture Notes: Ethical Nonobjectivism
The Nature of Ethical Nonobjectivism
Ethical nonobjectivists hold that there are no objective moral facts and no objectively true moral principles. It is important to emphasize that this theory does not just believe that moral facts are difficult to discover or that we might not be sure what they are; rather, it holds that there are no objective moral truths to discover. One version of ethical nonobjectivism is emotivism or noncognitivism. According to this theory, sentences that appear to state ethical facts, such as “stealing is wrong,” are instead merely expressions of emotion and not genuine statements at all. Most contemporary nonobjectivists, however, are not emotivists; they believe that such sentences are statements, but that there are no objective facts to support these statements.
Arguments for Ethical Nonobjectivism from Moral Diversity
The key argument for ethical nonobjectivism is the argument of moral diversity. This argument focuses on the enormous diversity of moral beliefs both within cultures and cross-culturally. Many cultures around the world hold conflicting moral beliefs that cannot both be correct. If these cultures cannot agree on what is morally true, then there cannot be any moral truths to begin with.
The objectivist has two possible answers to this argument. First, the great divergence of moral opinion is more ...
Introduction to ethics
At the end of the course the students should be able to:
Explain what ethics is all about and it's elements
slides 2 problem of pholosophy. to discover areas of philosophy to scientific...
This document discusses several key topics in philosophy including ontology, ethics, and free will vs determinism.
1) Ontology is the study of the nature of reality and existence. It examines questions about the relationship between mind and body, the nature of time and causality, and whether reality exists independently of the mind.
2) Ethics examines theories of right and wrong action, including metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. It explores the nature of morality and how people should act.
3) The debate over free will vs determinism centers around whether human actions are freely chosen or determined by prior causes. Compatibilists believe we can have both free will and determinism, while hard determin
The Biological Basis of MoralityDo we invent our moral absolutes.docx
The Biological Basis of Morality
Do we invent our moral absolutes in order to make society workable? Or are these enduring principles expressed to us by some transcendent or Godlike authority? Efforts to resolve this conundrum have perplexed, sometimes inflamed, our best minds for centuries, but the natural sciences are telling us more and more about the choices we make and our reasons for making them
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· EDWARD O. WILSON
· APRIL 1998 ISSUE
CENTURIES of debate on the origin of ethics come down to this: Either ethical principles, such as justice and human rights, are independent of human experience, or they are human inventions. The distinction is more than an exercise for academic philosophers. The choice between these two understandings makes all the difference in the way we view ourselves as a species. It measures the authority of religion, and it determines the conduct of moral reasoning.
The two assumptions in competition are like islands in a sea of chaos, as different as life and death, matter and the void. One cannot learn which is correct by pure logic; the answer will eventually be reached through an accumulation of objective evidence. Moral reasoning, I believe, is at every level intrinsically consilient with -- compatible with, intertwined with -- the natural sciences. (I use a form of the word "consilience" -- literally a "jumping together" of knowledge as a result of the linking of facts and fact-based theory across disciplines to create a common groundwork of explanation -- because its rarity has preserved its precision.)
Every thoughtful person has an opinion on which premise is correct. But the split is not, as popularly supposed, between religious believers and secularists. It is between transcendentalists, who think that moral guidelines exist outside the human mind, and empiricists, who think them contrivances of the mind. In simplest terms, the options are as follows: I believe in the independence of moral values, whether from God or not, and I believe that moral values come from human beings alone, whether or not God exists.
Theologians and philosophers have almost always focused on transcendentalism as the means to validate ethics. They seek the grail of natural law, which comprises freestanding principles of moral conduct immune to doubt and compromise. Christian theologians, following Saint Thomas Aquinas's reasoning in Summa Theologiae, by and large consider natural law to be an expression of God's will. In this view, human beings have an obligation to discover the law by diligent reasoning and to weave it into the routine of their daily lives. Secular philosophers of a transcendental bent may seem to be radically different from theologians, but they are actually quite similar, at least in moral reasoning. They tend to view natural law as a set of principles so powerful, whatever their origin, as to be self-evident to any rational person. In short, transcendental views are fundamentally t ...
A CRITIQUE OF MORAL RELATIVISM
This document provides a critique of moral relativism in four parts:
1. It defines moral relativism as the view that moral principles are conditional on culture or individuals and cannot be universal.
2. It refutes moral relativism by outlining eight reasons why it is logically inconsistent and leads to confusion.
3. It discusses motivations for adopting a relativist view, including discovering cultural diversity in moral codes.
4. It examines the social consequences of moral relativism, particularly the emergence of a new and dangerous consequence.
3._Absolutism_vs._Relativism.pptx.pdf
The document discusses the debate between moral absolutism and relativism. It defines absolutism as the view that morality is absolute, universal and not dependent on personal or cultural contexts. Relativism is defined as the opposite view that moral values are relative to contexts like cultures, individuals and situations. The document examines arguments for both views and their limitations. It concludes that a purely absolutist or relativist position is difficult to maintain and that some universal moral principles with justified exceptions may provide a better framework.
1111298173 282421 13
Moral realism claims that moral facts exist independently of human thought. The chapter discusses moral skepticism and nihilism, which deny the existence of objective moral truths. It explores Mackie's arguments from relativity, queerness, and projection against moral realism. Harman's defense of extreme moral nihilism is presented, arguing morality is an illusion. However, criticism is made that scientific and moral observation are analogous, and moral claims can be tested, if not in the same way as empirical theories. The chapter concludes with an outline of a defense for moral realism based on facts about happiness and suffering.
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