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Chapter 3: Growth, Slavery, and Conflict
- 1. 1 Visions of America, A History of the United States CHAPTER Growth, Slavery, and Conflict Colonial America, 1710–1763 3 1 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 2. 2 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 3. Growth, Slavery, and Conflict I. Culture and Society in the Eighteenth Century II. Enlightenment and Awakening III. African Americans in the Colonial Era IV. Immigration, Regional Economies, and Inequality V. War and the Contest over Empire COLONIAL AMERICA,1710–1763 3 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 4. Growth, Slavery, and Conflict Enlightenment – An international philosophical movement that extolled the virtues of reason and science and applied these new insights to politics and social reform Great Awakening – A religious revival movement that emphasized a more emotional style of religious practice COLONIAL AMERICA,1710–1763 4 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 5. Culture and Society in the Eighteenth Century A. The Refinement of America B. More English, Yet More American C. Strong Assemblies and Weak Governors 5 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 6. The Refinement of America Define Anglicization and give an example of an aspect of colonial life transformed by this process. Why did new pieces of furniture like drop- leaf bookcases become popular in the eighteenth century? 6 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 7. The Refinement of America Anglicization – The colonial American desire to emulate English society, including English taste in foods, customs, and architecture 7 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 8. 8 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 9. 9 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 10. 10 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 11. 11 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 12. More English, Yet More American How does Westover Plantation illustrate the growing wealth of the colonies? 12 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 13. 13 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 15. 15 Visions of America, A History of the United States Images as History The image of the docile slave reflected the slave owner’s point of view, not the slave’s. The elegant suit testifies to the family’s wealth and cosmopolitan taste. A PORTRAIT OF COLONIAL ASPIRATIONS How is slavery represented in this portrait? The imaginary garden in the background represents the Darnalls’ aspirations.
- 16. Strong Assemblies and Weak Governors Virtual Representation – A theory of representation in which legislators do not serve their localities but rather the whole nation 16 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 17. Strong Assemblies and Weak Governors What does the design of the Pennsylvania State House reveal about colonial society? Why were colonial governors so weak? 17 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 18. 18 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 19. Enlightenment and Awakenings A. Georgia’s Utopian Experiment B. American Champions of the Enlightenment C. Awakening, Revivalism, and American Society D. Indian Revivals 19 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 20. 20 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 21. 21 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 22. American Champions of the Enlightenment What was the Newtonian view of the universe? How does this portrait of Franklin reflect his reputation as a champion of the Enlightenment? 22 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 23. 23 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 24. Awakening, Revivalism, and American Society What aspects of the Great Awakening encouraged democratization? 24 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 25. Awakening, Revivalism, and American Society Old Lights – Opponents of the Great Awakening who favored traditional forms of religious worship New Lights – Supporters of the Great Awakening and its more emotional style of worship 25 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 26. Indian Revivals Why was Moravian art so helpful to missionaries interested in converting American Indians? 26 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 27. 27 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 28. African Americans in the Colonial Era A. The Atlantic Slave Trade B. Southern Slavery C. Northern Slavery and Free Blacks D. Slave Resistance and Rebellion E. An African American Culture Emerges under Slavery 28 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 29. The Atlantic Slave Trade Which regions of the Atlantic world imported the greatest number of slaves? What was tight packing? 29 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 30. The Atlantic Slave Trade Middle Passage – The harrowing voyage across the Atlantic from Africa to the Americas during which slaves endured meager rations and horrendously unsanitary conditions 30 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 31. 31 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 32. 32 Visions of America, A History of the United States Envisioning Evidence Which European nations were most heavily involved in the international slave trade? THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SLAVE TRADE
- 33. Southern Slavery What were the main differences between the task system and the gang system of labor? 33 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 34. 34 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 35. Slave Resistance and Rebellion How did slaves resist the authority of their masters? 35 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 36. An African American Culture Emerges under Slavery What evidence exists for the persistence of African cultural traits among American slaves? 36 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 37. 37 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 38. Immigration, Regional Economies, and Inequality A. Immigration to the Colonies B. Regional Economies C. New England D. The Mid-Atlantic E. The Upper and Lower South F. The Back Country G. Cities: Growth and Inequality H. Rural America: Land Becomes Scarce 38 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 39. Immigration to the Colonies How did the ethnic composition of America change in the eighteenth century? 39 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 40. Immigration to the Colonies Indentured Servants – Individuals working in a form of bound labor in which a number of years of service were specified as payment for passage to America 40 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 41. 41 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 42. 42 Visions of America, A History of the United States Regional Economies
- 43. The Mid-Atlantic Which region of colonial America was the most culturally diverse? 43 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 44. 44 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 45. The Upper and Lower South What were the main cash crops produced by slave labor in the South? 45 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 46. Cities: Growth and Inequality Why was American society becoming more unequal toward the end of the eighteenth century? 46 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 47. 47 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 48. Rural America: Land Becomes Scarce How did the scarcity of land affect typical Americans before the French and Indian War? 48 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 49. War and the Contest over Empire A. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Ground B. The Struggle for North America 49 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 50. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Ground What made the middle ground a distinctive region of colonial America? Why did British expansion threaten the middle ground? 50 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 51. The Rise and Fall of the Middle Ground Middle Ground – A cultural and geographical region of the Great Lakes in which Native Americans and the French negotiated with each other for goods and neither side could impose its will on the other 51 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 52. The Struggle for North America What was Williams Pitt’s new policy for North America? What role does the Native American figure play in West’s painting? How did the Proclamation of 1763 serve British interests? 52 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 53. 53 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 54. 54 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 55. 55 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 56. Competing Visions How did Johnson react to Native American demands that western expansion be halted? SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON AND THE IROQUOIS: INDIAN VISIONS vs. BRITISH ARMS The Onondaga Chief told of the Great Spirit’s displeasure with the British displacement of Indian peoples. His revelation contained a thinly veiled threat about the consequences of continuing this policy. Sir William Johnson dismissed Native American religious beliefs as foolish superstitions. He reminded the Iroquois that British weapons were superior to theirs and that resistance would not be tolerated. 56 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 57. Choices and Consequences • Relations between Pennsylvanians and Native Americans had deteriorated during the eighteenth century. • Western Pennsylvania settlers, including the Paxton Boys, petitioned the Quaker-dominated assembly to create a militia. • Quakers were pacifists who continued to believe that it was possible to maintain peaceful relations with their Native American neighbors. QUAKERS, PACIFISM, AND THE PAXTON UPRISING 57 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 58. Choices and Consequences Quaker Members’ Choices Regarding the Paxton Uprising QUAKERS, PACIFISM, AND THE PAXTON UPRISING 58 Visions of America, A History of the United States Agree to create a militia Continue to oppose the creation of a militia and seek non- violent solutions Resign from office
- 59. Choices and Consequences Decision and Consequences • The legislature chose to continue its pacifist policies. • Pennsylvania remained the only colony without a militia law. • The 1776 Pennsylvania Constitution and Declaration of Rights created a militia and made Pennsylvania the first state to expressly protect a right to bear arms. Why did Paxtonians demand that the Quakers create a militia? QUAKERS, PACIFISM, AND THE PAXTON UPRISING 59 Visions of America, A History of the United States
- 60. Choices and Consequences Continuing Controversies •Why were Quakers so obstinately against creating a well-regulated militia? QUAKERS, PACIFISM, AND THE PAXTON UPRISING 60 Visions of America, A History of the United States
Editor's Notes
- Chapter Opener: “Indian Kings” (page 65) Text Excerpt: Captain Archibald Macpheadris, a fur trader in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, built an elegant new house in 1716, complete with beautifully executed wall murals, signifying his wealth and refinement. One of the most striking murals depicted two Mohawk Native American chiefs. The unknown painter copied these images from an engraving of a group of Native Americans who had traveled to London to meet with Queen Anne (r. 1703–1714). The engraver and the painter included authentic elements, such as the tomahawk wielded by the Native American on the right. Yet the image of the Native Americans also reflected the conventions of European painting: The position of the Mohawk “Indian Kings’ ” hands at their hip resembled a common aristocratic pose found in English portraits from this period. Background: A delegation of four Native American leaders traveled to London to the Court of Queen Anne in 1710 to secure British support against the French and their Native American allies. The Queen commissioned John Verelst, a Dutch artist living in London, to paint their portraits, which are the earliest known surviving oil paintings of any of the Native peoples of North America. “The Four Kings” became something of a cultural sensation and were celebrated in poems, ballads, and newspaper accounts. A popular mezzotint, a new technique that allowed engravings to achieve a greater range of tones, was created based on the oil paintings of the “Four Kings.” The images that graced the walls of the elegant New Hampshire home of Captain Archibald Macpheadris drew on these mezzotints for inspiration. Chapter Connections: The expanding world of the Atlantic economy not only allowed Macpheadris to build a fine brick mansion but the growing wealth of the colonies and rising number of immigrants also meant that skilled artisan and artists, including the one responsible for the murals, were now part of the increasingly diversified colonial economy. The circulation of goods, including the pattern books used to build structures such as the Macphaedris house and the mezzotints consulted by the muralist, were among the many items that were imported to the colonies. (For more analysis of the expanding consumer culture of the Atlantic economy, see the discussion of Image 3.3 later in the chapter.) Discussion Questions: Why do you think the subject of the “Indian Kings” captured the imagination of Britons? Which features of the two “Indian Kings” in the mural seem most European? How do you think colonial Americans would have reacted to these murals?
- Image 3.1: The Hart Room, Metropolitan Museum of Art The simple whitewashed walls and exposed beams in this prosperous seventeenth-century room and the simple boxy style of its furniture were typical of the lack of ornamentation in this era.
- Image 3.2: The Triangle Trade The Atlantic economy can be visualized as a triangle. Goods from Europe were sold or traded in America or Africa. Raw materials from the Americas were sold in Europe. European goods were sold or traded for African slaves who were then shipped to the Americas.
- Image 3.3: Furniture from the Verplank Room, Metropolitan Museum (1767)(page 67) Caption: The highly specialized furniture reflected the growing wealth of many colonists and the Anglicization of colonial culture. In the inset image of a secretary bookcase, note the drop-leaf writing surface and cubbyholes that made this piece of furniture well adapted to the needs of merchants. Text Excerpt: The Verplank Room in the Metropolitan Museum of Art contains furniture from the New York City townhouse of Samuel Verplank and from the country house of Cadwallader Colden Jr. in Orange, New York. In contrast to the simple whitewashed walls of the seventeenth-century Hart Room, the Verplank Room has painted wood paneling. The elegant card table in the Verplank Room is one of many specialized pieces of furniture likely to have adorned a prosperous home in the mid-eighteenth century. Background: The furniture displayed in the Verplank Room at the Metropolitan Museum dates from the middle of the eighteenth century. Samuel Verplank was a prosperous merchant and his choice of furniture reflected the tastes of New York’s mercantile elite. The furniture in this stylish room includes a secretary bookcase, which was imported from England. The finish on this piece of furniture, a style known as japanning, involved creating a glossy finish over a scene designed to evoke the “Orient.” Another prominent furnishing in the room is the card table. Although influenced by the English “Chippendale” style, the card table and matching chairs are American made. This set of matching pieces is stylistically linked by the “cabriole legs,” a popular style that featured an animal leg with a claw grasping a ball. In contrast to the plain whitewashed walls typical of earlier homes, this room contains painted wood paneling, an elegant imported mirror, and pumpkin-colored window treatments. In short, the furnishing of the Verplank room were designed to impress upon Verplank’s visitors the wealth, refinement, and cosmopolitan tastes of their host. Chapter Connections: The secretary bookcase in the Verplank room was purchased by Verplank’s wife’s family from the estate of Sir Danver Osborne, the melancholy royal governor of New York who took his life shortly after taking up his post in New York. The design of these pieces of furniture was well suited to the needs of merchants or government officials—anyone who had to maintain extensive correspondence with others throughout the Atlantic world. The card table and matching chairs not only testify to the growing wealth of the colonies, which now supported more time for leisure activities, but also to the fact that such items could now be procured domestically from an American artisan familiar with the latest English styles, further evidence of the process of Anglicization. Card playing became a popular social activity among elites who would have thought a card table a necessary amenity for a refined lifestyle. Discussion Questions: Why did card tables become popular in the eighteenth century? Why did secretary bookcases appeal to merchants? What examples of English influence are discernible in the furniture in this room?
- Image 3.4: Eliza Pinckney's Dress Silk produced on Pinckney’s plantation was sent to England so that it could be spun into fine fabric, dyed, and sewn into a dress that reflected the latest London fashions.
- Image 3.5: Westover Plantation The doorway of Byrd’s mansion was crafted in England and included the latest architectural details. Notice the carved pineapple above the door.
- Image 3.6: English Pattern Book Byrd used this picture from an influential London design book when selecting a style for his doorway.
- Henry Darnall III as a Child by Justus Engelhardt Kuhn
- Image 3.7: Pennsylvania State House The new Pennsylvania State House reflected Anglicization of American tastes and the growing wealth of colonial Pennsylvania.
- Image 3.8: The Goals Committee of the House of Commons In William Hogarth's painting, members of Parliament involved in prison reform, including James Oglethorpe (second from the left), examine a prisoner. His tattered clothes and shackles reveal the inhumanity of Britain’s prison system.
- Image 3.9: Savannah, Georgia The layout of Savannah resembled a Roman military garrison, reflecting its strategic importance as a frontier outpost protecting the American colonies from Spanish America.
- Image 3.10: Mason Chamberlin Portrait of Benjamin Franklin (1762) (page 74) Caption: This contemporary painting of Franklin links him with his work on electricity. In the background, lightning destroys one building while another, to which Franklin’s lightning rod is attached, survives a strike. Text Excerpt: Franklin’s close association with electricity in general and the lightning rod in particular was captured in this 1762 painting, which depicts Franklin at his desk with a lightning storm raging in the background and a lightning rod prominently positioned on a building visible through a window. Background: This painting of Franklin done in 1762 is one of the earliest known portraits of Franklin. It also was used as the source for 13 different sets of popular engravings. Franklin’s fame, fueled by his experiments with electricity and the invention of the lightning rod, is evidenced in this painting, which highlights these accomplishments. Franklin sits at his desk, turning his gaze toward a pair of suspended bells that were designed to signal the approach of an electrical storm. In the background two buildings, one with a lightning rod and one without, are weathering an electrical storm. The one protected by Franklin’s invention remains unscathed while the other is severely damaged. Chapter Connections: Franklin’s experiments with electricity helped establish his reputation as a leading exemplar of the Enlightenment and its values. Rather than produce more philosophical works, American champions of Enlightenment values, including Franklin, focused on practical applications of science. A close friend of Franklin, Charles Thomson, captured this attitude when he wrote that “learning should be connected with life” and that the “spirit of enquiry” should promote “the Advancement of useful knowledge and improvement of our Country.” Franklin took his insights into the nature of electricity and used them to create the lightening rod. His investigation of optics led to the creation of bifocal lens, and his investigation of the physics of heat led to the invention of the “Franklin stove,” a significant improvement over the thermally inefficient open fireplaces found in most homes. The same spirit of Enlightenment infused Franklin’s conception of politics. In his Autobiography he wrote: “In the autumn of the preceding year, [1727] I had form'd most of my ingenious acquaintance into a club of mutual improvement, which we called the Junto; we met on Friday evenings. The rules that I drew up required that every member, in his turn, should produce one or more queries on any point of Morals, Politics, or Natural Philosophy, to be discuss'd by the company.” As Franklin’s comments suggest, Enlightenment ideals not only inspired scientific investigation, what Franklin called “natural philosophy,”but also politics. Approaching politics in a scientific manner would come to be the hallmark of America’s contribution to Western political theory. Thus the same impulse that drove Franklin and his Junto would inspire the authors of The Federalist to describe their project in these terms: “It has been frequently remarked that it seems to have been reserved to the people of this country, by their conduct and example, to decide the important question, whether societies of men are really capable or not of establishing good government from reflection and choice.” Discussion Questions: How does the artist pose Franklin? What is the significance of the events happening in window behind Franklin? How does this painting link Franklin to the values of the Enlightenment?
- Image 3.11: Lamentation, Moravian Painting of Christ Depictions of the “blood of the savior” in images such as this made them highly effective tools for Moravian missionaries. Here the artist highlights physical pain and stoic endurance, two traits that appealed strongly to American Indian men.
- Image 3.12: Tight Packing This abolitionist depiction of tight packing shows the cramped conditions on slave ships, which maximized the number of bodies carried with no concern for the health of the slaves transported.
- The Atlantic Slave Trade This map and the corresponding pie charts show the involvement of various nations in the slave trade in the eighteenth century. British slave traders transported the largest share of slaves, selling most to the sugar plantation owners on the islands of the British Caribbean and Brazil. Slave imports to the British American mainland were about a third of the number destined for the sugar islands of the Caribbean.
- Image 3.13: Slave Quarters, Mulberry Plantation, South Carolina The conical design of these slave cabins, including their thatched roofs, drew on West African architectural influences.
- Image 3.14: Slaves Dancing and Playing Banjo This image of slaves dancing in the slave quarters prominently features a banjo. The instrument was modeled on an instrument that was well known in Africa.
- Image 3.15: Ancestry of the Population of the British Mainland Colonies in the Eighteenth-Century (page 83) Caption: During the eighteenth century, the number of non-English immigrants increased. Immigrants from other parts of the British Empire, including Scotland and Ireland, rose as well. Another major source of immigration was continental Europe, especially Germany and Holland. One-fifth of the immigrants were enslaved Africans. Text Excerpt: As the chart illustrates, the colonies attracted settlers from elsewhere in Britain, including Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Immigration from the European continent also included many Dutch and Germans. Background: Immigration to the British colonies expanded enormously in the eighteenth century. The character of immigrants changed in two important respects. First, the majority of eighteenth-century immigrants were bound laborers: slaves, convicts, or indentured servants. Second, the ethnic origins of immigrants changed dramatically. English and Welsh immigrants now accounted for less than a quarter of the new arrivals in the colonies. According to the estimates compiled by historian Aaron Fogelman the figures are as follows: Estimated Immigration to the 13 Colonies by Legal Status, 1700-1775 Slaves278,400 Convicts/prisoners52,200 Indentured servants103,600 Free151,000 Total585,800 Adapted from Aaron S. Fogleman, “From Slaves, Convicts, and Servants to Free Passengers: The Transformation of Immigration in the Era of the American Revolution,” The Journal of American History, Vol. 85 (1998), pp. 43–76. Estimated European Immigration to the Thirteen Colonies, 1700–1775 Irish108,600 English/Welsh73,100 Scots35,500 German84,000 Other5,900 Total307,400 Adapted from Aaron S. Fogleman, “From Slaves, Convicts, and Servants to Free Passengers: The Transformation of Immigration in the Era of the American Revolution,” The Journal of American History, Vol. 85 (1998), pp. 43–76. Chapter Connections: The enormous increase in the number of slaves imported to British colonies was essential to the rising profitability of colonial agriculture. Although the vast majority of slaves went to Brazil or the sugar colonies of the West Indies, the number of slaves imported to the British mainland colonies was significant. Among European immigrants the expansion in immigration from German-speaking countries was noteworthy. By 1766 Germans constituted about one third of the population of Pennsylvania. Many of the Scots and Irish (mostly Protestants from what is now Northern Ireland) streamed into the backcountry regions of the colonies, particularly Pennsylvania. Tensions between these new immigrants and the Native American populations of these regions invariably led to violence, most notably the Paxton uprising. Discussion Questions: How did the ethnic composition of American change in the eighteenth century? What factors account for this shift? How did new immigrants change the culture of colonies such as Pennsylvania?
- Image 3.16: Map of Colonial Regions By the middle of the eighteenth century, colonial America had evolved into a number of distinctive regions: New England, mid-Atlantic, upper South, lower South, and the back country.
- Image 3.17: Engraving of New York Skyline This engraving of New York’s skyline lists a score of churches and synagogues whose spires dominated the skyline of the colonial town.
- Image 3.18: Poor Relief, Boston Poverty increased in colonial Boston in the late eighteenth century, as did the poor relief needed to deal with this problem.
- Image 3.19: British Conquest of New France The British and French battled one another across a huge arc of territory, fighting pivotal battles at Louisbourg, Quebec, and Montreal.
- Image 3.20: Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe (1771) (page 90) Caption: Benjamin West cast the dying Wolfe in the same pose artists used to depict Jesus after the crucifixion. The messenger arriving with the news of victory enters the scene from the light-filled area of the painting, symbolizing the bright future of North America after the British victory. Text Excerpt: Pennsylvania painter Benjamin West commemorated the assault on Quebec in The Death of General Wolfe (1771). West shows the dying general cradled in the arms of one of his officers. Contemporary viewers would have recognized this arrangement from European painting and sculpture: the Pieta, or the image of the dead Jesus sprawled across the Virgin Mary’s lap after the crucifixion. To heighten the drama in West’s painting, a British soldier runs toward the dying Wolfe with the news that the French have been defeated, while a Native American, a symbol of the noble warrior, looks on respectfully in tribute to the heroism of the general. Background: The painting captures a climactic moment in the French and Indian War, the successful British assault on the city of Quebec. Tragically, General Wolfe died in the assault and his heroic sacrifice is memorialized in West’s painting. The artist broke with prevailing artistic conventions in two important respects. First, West took a recent event as his subject. History paintings had traditionally taken classical or biblical themes as the proper subjects for an artist. Second, West did not dress his modern figures in classical garb, instead painting them in contemporary attire. In this sense, West’s art reflected the broader changes in American culture, which was evolving in a more egalitarian direction, eventually culminating in the Jefferson’s radical assertion in the Declaration of Independence that “All men are created equal.” Chapter Connections: The British triumph in the French and Indian war transformed the map of North America, cementing British control of the region. West posed Wolfe in the pieta position, an iconic pose that would have been familiar to most viewers who would have recognized that this was way European artists had rendered Jesus in painting and sculpture for centuries. A variant of this pose was used by the Moravian artist John Valentine Haidt in his painting Lamentation (Image 3.11). (Artist Jonathan Tumbull used the same pose in his portrait of the Death of General Warren [Chapter 4] and the artist responsible for the popular Currier and Ives lithograph of the Death of Colonel Clay also used this pose to commemorate an event during the Mexican-American War almost seventy-five years later [Chapter 11].) Discussion Questions: How does West use religious imagery to strengthen the emotional impact of his painting? What role does the Native American play in the story told by the painting? How does the artist use light and dark to underscore the moral of the painting?
- Image 3.21: Proclamation of 1763 The French and Indian War shifted the balance of power in North America. The Proclamation of 1763 banned colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.