The nervous system is comprised of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord, and is responsible for processing sensory information and coordinating voluntary and involuntary actions. The highly complex brain is the control center and consists of different regions that perform specialized functions like memory, vision, and motor control. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and includes the autonomic nervous system which regulates involuntary body functions. Neurons are the basic functional units that transmit electrochemical signals throughout the nervous system, enabling it to coordinate all activities and maintain homeostasis.
The nervous system is the body's main communication system; it gathers, synthesizes, and uses data from the environment. The most basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron, which serves as both a sensor and communicator of internal and external stimuli.
In humans and other higher animals, the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) collectively form the whole nervous system. The CNS, which serves as the body's control center, includes the spinal cord and the brain. The PNS, a nerve network, links the CNS to various bodily systems.
The nervous system of vertebrates (including humans) is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The (CNS) is the major division, and consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal canal contains the spinal cord, while the cranial cavity contains the brain.
It is the part of central nervous system.
Complex organ that controls every process that regulates human body.
Located in cranium
cranium and bones that protects the brain is called skull
In terms of weight, the average adult human brain weighs in at 1300 to 1400 grams or around 3 pounds
In terms of length, the average brain is around 15 centimeters long.
There are 3 main parts of the brain
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Forebrain is divided into 3 functional parts
Thalamus
Cerebrum
Limbic system
Thalamus : Thalamus carries sensory information to the limbic system and cerebrum. The information includes sensory input from auditory and visual pathways, from the skin and from within the body.
Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses. Further divided into 2 halves:
Right cerebral hemisphere (control the functions of left part of body)
Left cerebral hemisphere (controls the functions of rights part of the body)
Cerebral cortex is the outer layer of cerebrum. This part receives sensory information, processes it, stores some in memory for future use, directs voluntary movements, and is responsible for the poorly understood process that we call thinking.
Lobes of cerebral cortex:
Parietal Lobe Located below the crown of the head Processes sensory information from the whole body (information about pain, touch, and pressure)
Frontal Lobe Located right behind the forehead Responsible for initiating and coordinating motor movements and higher cognitive skills like problem solving and thinking
Occipital Lobe Located in the back of the brain, against the skull Processes all the visual information coming into the brain
Temporal Lobe Located behind the temples and just above the ears In charge of making sense of the information you hear Integrates information from various senses, such as smell and vision
Limbic system: The limbic system is located in an arc between the thalamus and cerebrum. Limbic system works together to produce our most basic and primitive emotions, drives, and behaviors, including fear, rage, tranquility, hunger, thirst, pleasure and sexual responses. Portion of limbic system is also important in the formation of memories. It is further divided into 3 parts:
Amygdala (regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression)
Hippocampus (storage of long term memory)
Hypothalamus (major coordinating center controlling body temperature, hunger, the menstrual cycle, water balance, the sleep-wake cycle through hormone production)
Midbrain is reduced in humans, and it contains auditory relay center and center that controls relax movements of eyes.
Midbrain contains reticular formation, which is a relay center connecting hindbrain with the forebrain.
Reticular formation is very i
Nervous system is the main system of our body and without the nervous system body will not function. it is control the all over body parts , organ function and body movements. Nervous system contain brain and spinal cord both are work with with each other as a coordinator. nervous system is divided in to two parts central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
1. NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The brain and its constituent parts are the most complex system ever known. With one trillion
separate cells, each one in a continuous process of changing in response to chemical signals.
From the moment of conception to the moment of death, the biology of the individual is
changing. It is in this complexity that our species has found the capability to store the
accumulated experience of thousands of generations to create human culture.
The Nervous system
The system that controls and regulates the structure and function of the brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and the nerve cells; it maintains coordination between the nervous system and the
rest of the bodily systems.
It is responsible for the internal communication system that ensures the integrated
functioning of the various systems.
Neuron
A nervous system cell is constituted in such a way that it is specialized in receiving, processing,
and/or transmitting information to other cells.
Structure of a Neuron
Dendrites: Receivers of incoming signals; branch fibers extending outward from the cell body.
Soma: The cell body containing the cytoplasm and the nucleus of the cell; cytoplasm keeps it
alive.
2. Axon: The nerve impulses travel from the soma to the terminal buttons through the extended
fiber of a neuron i.e., axon.
Terminal Buttons: Swollen, bulblike structures at one end of the axon; the neuron stimulates
the nearby glands, muscles, or other neurons
Types of Neurons
Sensory Neurons (afferent): they carry messages toward the Central Nervous System from the
sensory receptor cells.
Motor Neurons (efferent): they carry messages away from the Central Nervous System toward
the muscles and glands.
Inter-Neurons: they relay messages from sensory neurons to other inter-neurons and/or to motor
neurons.
3. Main Parts of the Nervous System
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• The Central Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Consists of the spinal and cranial nerves; these connect the CNS to the rest of the body. PNS
connects the body’s sensory receptors to the CNS, and the CNS to the muscles and glands.
• The part of the nervous system that includes all parts of the nervous system except the
brain and the spinal cord
• It Includes:
i. Somatic Division/Somatic Nervous System/SNS
ii. Autonomic division /Autonomic Nervous System/ ANS
Somatic Division: controls the voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles.
4. Autonomic division: controls the involuntary movements all over the body; movements of the
heart, lungs, stomach, glands and other organs.
A.N.S. has a dual function; i.e. both arousing and calming.
Comprises two sub systems; Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
This part of ANS arouses us for defensive action…. fight or flight.
If something alarms, endangers, excites, or enrages a person, the sympathetic nervous
system accelerates heart beat, slows digestion, raises the sugar level in blood, dilates the
arteries and cools the body through perspiration; makes one alert and ready for action.
Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)
When the stressful situation subsides, parasympathetic nervous system begins its activity.
It produces an effect opposite to that of sympathetic nervous system.
It conserves energy by decreasing heart beat, lowering blood pressure, lowering blood
sugar and so on.
In daily life situations, both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems work together to
keep us in steady internal state maintaining the homeostasis.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain receives the information from all over the body (primarily in terms of stimulation via
sensation), interprets it, and decides how to respond.The brain’s function is similar to that of a
computer; there is a central processing unit (CPU), the output comes in, and the CPU analyses it
and responds to it.
The Brain
The center of the nervous system.
The vital organ that is responsible for the functions of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting,
thinking, feeling, remembering, speaking dreaming, information processing, and a lot
more.
The regulator of basic survival functions such as breathing, resting and feeding.
It is responsible for abstract level functions such as decision making, foresight, and
problem solving.
5. Parts of the Brain
The brain is made of three main parts:
a. Fore brain
b. Mid brain
c. Hind brain
Fore Brain
Cerebrum: Cerebrum Largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain functions
such as thought and action..
Occupies 2/3 of the brain’s total mass
Consists of two symmetrical halves or hemispheres; The right cerebral hemisphere
controls the left side of the body and vice versa.
The hemispheres are connected by Corpus Callosum, a thick mass of nerve fibers
Cerebrum regulates the brain’s higher cognitive and emotional functions.
Cerebral Lobes
Frontal lobe
Associated with motor control and cognitive activities; reasoning, planning, decision making,
problem solving, movement and speech (Broca’s Area).
Parietal lobe
Associated with controlling incoming sensory information; thus affecting movement, orientation,
recognition, perception of stimuli.
Temporal lobe
Associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory & speech.
Wernicke’s area: concerned with the understanding of language is located here
6. Occipital lobe
Associated with visual processing.
Thalamus: Incoming sensory information is channeled to the appropriate area of the cerebral
cortex by thalamus, so that it is processed there.
• Thalamus acts like a relay station…. the brain’s sensory switchboard; it directs messages to the
sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
•It receives information from the sensory neurons and routes it to the higher brain regions that
deal with vision, audition, taste and touch Except for olfactory impulses .
Limbic system: • Evolutionarily the structure of limbic system is rather old.
The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried within the
cerebrum.
Structures within the Limbic System
Amygdala
Two almond-shaped neural clusters in the limbic system that are linked with emotions.
They are related with aggression and fear.
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is the part of the limbic system that is important for
memory and learning.
Hypothalamus
One of the smallest structures in the brain.
The neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; Composed of several nuclei. Small
bundles of neurons that regulate physiological processes involved in motivated behavior
e.g. hunger, thirst, regulation of body temperature.
Hypothalamus acts as the body’s Thermostat.
Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
Mid Brain
tectum: The dorsal part of the midbrain, responsible for auditory and visual reflexes.
tegmentum: The ventral portion of the midbrain, a multisynaptic network of neurons involved in
many unconscious homeostatic and reflexive pathways.
Reticular formation:
A dense network of nerve cells.
It keeps the brain alert even during sleep.
It makes the cerebral cortex attend to new stimulation by arousing it.
Needed for arousal from sleep & to maintain consciousness.
Serious damage to reticular formation may result into a coma.
Substantia nigra: The substantia nigra (SN) is a midbrain dopaminergic nucleus which has a
critical role in modulating motor movement and reward functions as part of the basal ganglia
circuitry
7. Hind Brain
Cerebellum:
"Cerebellum" comes from the Latin word for "little brain”.
It carries 10% of the weight of the brain.
It contains as many neurons as in the rest of the brain.
Its function is to coordinate body movements i.e. coordination, maintenance of posture &
balance.
Damage to cerebellum results into jerky and uncoordinated body movements.
Pons :
The pons seems to serve as a relay station carrying signals from various parts of the
cerebral cortex to the cerebellum.
Nerve impulses coming from the eyes, ears and touch receptors are sent on the
cerebellum.
The pons also participates in the reflexes that regulate breathing.
It has parts that are important for the level of consciousness and for sleep.
Medulla oblongata:
Responsible for basic survival functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
Located at the top of the spinal cord and continuous with it.
Damage to Medulla can be fatal as it is the center responsible for vital functions i.e.,
respiration, heart beat, and blood pressure.
Spinal Cord
Continuation of the Medulla Oblongata.
Signals arising in the motor areas of the brain travel back down the cord and leave in the
motor neurons.
The spinal cord also acts as a minor coordinating center responsible for some simple
reflexes like the withdrawal reflex.
