This document discusses various theories and models of learning including: 1. Classical conditioning which associates an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus. 2. Operant conditioning where behavior is modified through reinforcement or punishment. 3. Cognitive learning theories which focus on mental processes like attention, memory, and problem-solving. 4. Social learning theories that emphasize learning through observation and modeling behaviors. It also describes different learning styles including divergers, convergers, accommodators, and assimilators based on how people perceive and process information. Reinforcement and behavior modification aim to increase desired behaviors through consequences like rewards or praise.

1. Individual Learning &
Behavior

2. Motivation
Individual
Behavior &
Performance
Ability
Role
Perceptions
Situational
Factors
MARS Model

3. What is learning
 Relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of a persons‟
interaction with the environment
 Change in behavior acquired through
practice / training
◦ Prior Experience
◦ Behavior modification
◦ Reinforced practice or experience

4. Learning
Social
Learning
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning
Cognitive
Learning
Theories of Learning

5. No
Response
Before
Conditioning
UR (Salivation)
Conditioning
US (Food)
UR
(Salivation)
CS
(Bell)
CR
(Salivation)
Classical Conditioning
US

6. Instrumental or Operant Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning refers to the process that
behavior produces certain consequences and how
we behave in the future will depend on what
these consequences are
 Learning is a habit through enforcement or
reward
Reward / Reinforcement
Stimulus Response
Drive Habit

7. Cognitive Theories

8. Social Learning Theories
Observe
Mental Picture of the
Behavior
Outcome (Rewards /
Punishments)

9. Learning Curve
Time
Learning

10. The Learning Process
There are five major reasons why people do
not learn as effectively as is desirable:
1. They do not recognize an activity as learning –
they simply see it as „doing a piece of work‟.
2. They partially see something as involving
learning, but fail to use the opportunity fully.
3. An off-the-job learning experience is badly
designed and/or implemented
4. The opportunity for learning is provided in a
way which fits poorly with the way in which an
individual likes to learn.
5. The learning opportunity is not perceived as
relevant to the needs of, and benefits sought
by, the learner.

11. The Learning Cycle
Having an experience
Concluding
Planning Reviewing
Since we learn mostly by doing things and then
thinking about how we have done them,
The learning sequence can be set out as a learning
cycle.
All designed learning experiences should take people
round the cycle in appropriate balance and sequence,
and all activities at work which contain learning
potential should similarly be analyzed and monitored
through each stage of the cycle.

12. Preferred ways of Learning
• If everyone followed the learning cycle by giving sufficient
attention at each stage of the cycle then we would
increase the chances of learning effectively.
• Effective learning for individuals requires a recognition
that one of the reasons why individuals do not learn fully
from any particular experience is that it may not match
the way in which they like to learn.
• Thus the fact is that different people have different
reactions to an apparently similar experience which could
involve learning.
• The individual‟s styles are consistent with the four stages
of the learning cycle – so one of the reasons why
individuals do not give appropriate attention to each
stage of the cycle is that they simply do not like that
particular kind of learning

14. The Learning Cycle and Styles
Activist
Having an
experience
Theorist
Concluding
From the
experience
Pragmatist
Planning the
next steps
Reflector
Reviewing the
experience
Doers: Activists
& Pragmatists
Thinkers: Reflectors
& Theorists

15. “Doers” learn best from activities
where:
 There are new experiences / problems
 They can engross themselves in short „here & now‟
activities: role plays, etc.
 Where they have a lot of visibility
 They are put into a difficult task without support
 There is an obvious link between subject matter and
opportunity on the job
 They are shown techniques for doing things with practical
advantages currently applicable in their jobs
 They have the chance to try out and practice techniques
with coaching / feedback from a credible expert
 They can concentrate on practical issues

16. “Thinkers” learn best from activities
where:
 They are encouraged to watch / think / chew over activities
 They are allowed to think before action, to assimilate
before commenting
 They have the opportunity to review what has happened,
what they have learned
 They can reach a decision on their own time without
pressure and tight deadlines
 They have time to explore methodically the associations
and inter-relationships between ideas, events and
situations
 They are in structured situations with clear purposes
 They have a chance to question and probe the basic
methodology, assumptions or logic behind something
 They are intellectually stretched

17. Activists
• Learns best from relatively short here-and-now tasks
• These may be managerial activities on the job or on
courses: such as business games and competitive
teamwork exercises
• They learn less well from situations involving a passive role
such as listening to lectures or reading
Strengths: Flexible & open minded; Happy to have a go;
Happy to be exposed to new situations; Optimistic about
anything new and therefore unlikely to resist change.
Weaknesses: Tendency to take the immediate obvious action
without thinking; Often take unnecessary risks; Tendency
to do too much themselves; Rush into action immediately

18. Reflectors
• Learn best from activities where they are able to stand
back, listen and observe.
• They like collecting information and being given the
opportunity to think about it.
• They learn less well when they are rushed into things
without the opportunity to learn.
Strengths: Careful, thorough, methodical; Thoughtful, rarely
jump to conclusions; Good at listening, assimilating
information.
Weaknesses: Tendency to hold back from participation; Slow
to reach a decision; Tendency to be cautious, less risks;
Non-assertive – not forthcoming

19. Theorists
• Learn best when they can review things in terms of a
system, a concept, a model or a theory.
• They are interested in and absorb ideas even where they
may be distant from current reality.
• They learn less well from activities presented without this
kind of explicit or implicit design.
Strengths: Logical „vertical‟ thinkers; Rational and objective;
Good at asking probing questions; Disciplined approach.
Weaknesses: Restricted in lateral thinking; Low tolerance to
uncertainty, disorder and ambiguity; Intolerant of anything
subjective or intuitive; Full of „shoulds, oughts and musts‟.

20. Pragmatists
• Learn best when there is an obvious link between the
subject matter and the problem or opportunity on the job.
• They like being exposed to techniques or processes which
can be applied in their immediate circumstances.
• They learn less well from learning events which seem
distant from their own reality. “Does it apply to my
situation?”
Strengths: Keen to test things in practice; Practical, down to
earth, realistic; Business like – straight to the point;
Technique oriented.
Weaknesses: Tendency to reject without an obvious
application; Not interested in theory / basic principles;
Impatient with what they see as waffle; On balance, task
and not people oriented; Tendency to seize first expedient
solution

21. Strengthening under-utilized styles
 Learning styles have themselves been learned from
experience – hence malleable
 You are forced to get out of your comfort zone
 Perseverance will make it more familiar and natural
 A preferred „doer‟ can practice the thinking styles and vice
versa.
- you become an all round learner.

22. Learning Styles
• Learning style results tell us only what we are now in terms
of preferred ways of learning; they are not fixed for ever.
• They are sometimes affected by the particular context in
which an individual works
• It is also possible for some people to attempt deliberately
to change their moderate or low learning style preferences
by changing the behaviours that caused that result.
• People learn more and more effectively from work on real
problems.
• (P)Programmed Knowledge + (Q) Questioning = (L)
Learning

23. Processing
Active
Experimentation
Reflective
Observation
Concrete
Experience
Abstract
Conceptualisation
Accomodators Divergers
AssimilatorsConvergers
Perception

25. David Kolb: Learning Styles Inventory
CONCRETE EXPERIENTIAL
ABSTRACT CONCEPTUAL
ACTIVE REFLECTIVE
EXPERIMENTATION OBSERVER
„WHY‟ QUADRANT [35%]
Learns by seeking out meaning
Connects to values & emotions
Seeks outcomes & interaction
Build rapport
Sell the idea
Trainer role: MOTIVATOR
„WHAT‟ QUADRANT [22%]
Learns by thinking through ideas
Seeks facts and is impressed by research
Wants to know what the experts thinks
Reflects on ideas
Usefulness generally irrelevant
Information junkies
„Teach it like it is ….‟
Trainer role: TEACHER
„HOW‟ QUADRANT [18%]
Learns by testing theories
Needs to know how things work
Seeks usability
Wants exercises and feedback
„Give me an explanation!‟
‘What’s in it for me?’
‘What are the facts?’‘How does this work?’
Trainer role: COACH/FACILITATOR
„WHAT IF‟ QUADRANT [25%]
How is it useful?
Learns by trial and error
Seeks hidden possibilities
Welcomes self discovery
How can I make money out of this?
‘Where can I apply this?’
Trainer role: COLLEAGUE

26. Preference dimensions
Perception dimension
In the vertical Perception dimension, people will have a
preference along the continuum between:
· Concrete experience: Looking at things as they are,
without any change, in raw detail.
· Abstract conceptualization: Looking at things as
concepts and ideas, after a degree of processing that
turns the raw detail into an internal model.
People who prefer concrete experience will argue that
thinking about something changes it, and that direct
empirical data is essential.
Those who prefer abstraction will argue that meaning is
created only after internal processing and that idealism is
a more real approach.

27. Processing dimension
In the horizontal Processing dimension, people will take the
results of their Perception and process it in preferred ways
along the continuum between:
· Active experimentation: Taking what they have
concluded and trying it out to prove that it works.
· Reflective observation: Taking what they have
concluded and watching to see if it works.

28. Divergers (Concrete experiencer/Reflective
observer) Social Comfort Learner
Divergers take experiences and think deeply about them,
thus diverging from a single experience to multiple
possibilities in terms of what this might mean. They like to
ask 'why', and will start from detail to constructively work
up to the big picture.
They enjoy participating and working with others but they
like a calm ship and fret over conflicts. They are generally
influenced by other people and like to receive constructive
feedback.
They like to learn via logical instruction or hands-one
exploration with conversations that lead to discovery.

29. DIVERGER - Those with highest scores in
Concrete Experience (CE) and Reflective
Observation (RO).
Divergers have characteristics opposite from convergers. Their
greatest strengths lie in creativity and imaginative ability.
A person with this learning style excels in the ability to view
concrete situations from many perspectives and generate many
ideas such as in a "brainstorming" session.
Research shows that Divergers are interested in people and
tend to be imaginative and emotional.
They tend to be interested in the arts and often have
humanities or liberal arts backgrounds.
Counselors, organizational development specialists, and
personnel managers tend to be characterized by this learning
style.

30. Convergers (Abstract conceptualization/Active
experimenter) Devil’s Advocate Learner
Convergers think about things and then try out their ideas to
see if they work in practice.
They like to ask 'how' about a situation, understanding how
things work in practice.
They like facts and will seek to make things efficient by
making small and careful changes.
They prefer to work by themselves, thinking carefully and
acting independently.
They learn through interaction and computer-based learning is
more effective with them than other methods.

31. CONVERGER - Those with highest scores in
Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Active
Experimentation (AE).
This person's greatest strength lies in the practical application
of ideas.
A person with this style seems to do best in those situations
where there is a single correct answer or solution to a
question or problem and can focus on specific problems or
situations.
Research on this style of learning shows that Convergers are
relatively unemotional, preferring to deal with things rather
than people.
They often choose to specialize in the physical
sciences, engineering, and computer sciences.

32. Accomodators (Concrete experiencer/Active
experimenter) Hand’s On Learner
Accommodators have the most hands-on approach, with a
strong preference for doing rather than thinking.
They like to ask 'what if?' and 'why not?' to support their
action-first approach.
They do not like routine and will take creative risks to see
what happens.
They like to explore complexity by direct interaction and learn
better by themselves than with other people.
As might be expected, they like hands-on and practical
learning rather than lectures.

33. ACCOMMODATOR - Those with highest scores in Concrete
Experience (CE) and Active Experimentation (AE).
Accommodators are polar opposites form Assimilators. Their
greatest strengths lie in carrying out plans and experiments and
involving themselves in new experiences.
They are risk-takers and excel in those situations requiring quick
decisions and adaptations.
In situations where a theory or plan does not fit the "facts," they
tend to discard it and try something else.
They often solve problems in an intuitive trial and error manner,
relying heavily on other people for information.
Accomodators are at ease with people but may be seen as
impatient and "pushy."
Their educational background is often in practical fields such as
business or education. They prefer “action-oriented" jobs such as

34. Assimilators (Abstract conceptualizer/Reflective
observer) Fact Oriented Learner
Assimilators have the most cognitive approach, preferring to think
than to act. They ask 'What is there I can know?' and like
organized and structured understanding.
They prefer lectures for learning, with demonstrations where
possible, and will respect the knowledge of experts. They will also
learn through conversation that takes a logical and thoughtful
approach.
They often have a strong control need and prefer the clean and
simple predictability of internal models to external messiness.
The best way to teach an assimilator is with lectures that start
from high-level concepts and work down to the detail. They prefer
reading material, like to learn with seriousness rather than play.

35. ASSIMILATOR - Those with highest scores in
Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Reflective
Observation (RO).
This person's strength lies in the ability to understand and
create theories.
A person with this learning style excels in inductive reasoning
and in synthesizing various ideas and observations into an
integrated whole.
This person, like the converger, is less interested in people and
more concerned with abstract concepts, but is less concerned
with the practical use of theories. For this person it is more
important that the theory be logically sound and precise; in a
situation where a theory or plan does not fit the "facts," the
Assimilator would be likely to disregard or re-examine the facts.
As a result, this learning style is more characteristic of the basic
sciences and mathematics rather than the applied sciences.
Assimilators often choose careers involving research and
planning.

36. Behavior Modification
 Antecedents & Consequences of Behavior
Antecedents
• What happens
before the
behavior
Behavior
• What the
person says or
does
Cosequences
• What happens
after the
behavior

37. Contingencies of Reinforcement
Consequence
Introduced
No
Consequence
Consequence
Removed
havior
reases
s
intained
Positive
Reinforcement
Bonus / Praise
Negative
Reinforcement
Stops Criticising
havior
reases
Punishment
Demotion /
Discharge
Extinction
Do -Nothing
Punishment
Removing
pleasant
consequence

38. Applicability
 Reinforcement
◦ Financial
 Cash payments, Time off, Paid Vacations
◦ Non-Financial
 Objective or Performance Feedback
◦ Social
 Attention, Recognitions, Commendations,
Compliments, Praise
◦ Mixed