1) Developmental theories provide frameworks for understanding human growth and change over time by generating hypotheses and guiding research. Grand theories describe universal processes across the entire lifespan while emergent theories reflect new perspectives. 2) Major grand theories include psychoanalytic, behaviorism, and cognitive approaches. Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes unconscious drives and childhood experiences. Behaviorism focuses on learned responses to stimuli. Cognitive theory examines thought processes and mental development. 3) Emergent theories incorporate more diverse cultural and social influences. Sociocultural theory underscores environmental impacts like culture and social interaction. Epigenetic theory considers gene-environment interplay over the lifespan.

1. Prepared by Madeleine Lacefield Tattoon, M.A.1Part IHeredity and EnvironmentChapter TwoWhat Theories DoGrand TheoriesEmergent TheoriesWhat Theories Contribute

2. 2What Theories Dodevelopmental theoriesa systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow olderlead to pivotal hypothesesgenerate discoveroffer practical guidance

3. 3What Theories Dodevelopmental theoriesgrand theoriesdescribe universal processes and development throughout the entire life spanoffers a framework for interpreting and understanding…change and development of all individualssome are emergent theories–new systematic and comprehensive theories of the future

4. 4Grand Theoriespsychoanalyticbehaviorism (learning theory)cognitivegrand in that they are…comprehensiveenduringwidely applied

5. 5Psychoanalytic Theorya grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlies human behavior

6. 6Psychoanalytic TheoryFreud 1856-1936development in the first six years hasthree stages, each characterized by sexual pleasure…infancy – the mouth – the oral stageearly childhood – the anus – the anal stagepreschool years – the penis – the phallic stagebeginning of adolescence through death – latency – genital stages

7. 7Psychoanalytic TheoryErikson – 1902-1994a follower of Freud, interested in culture diversitysocial changepsychological crisesdescribed eight developmental stagesTrust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame and DoubtInitiative vs. GuiltIndustry vs. InferiorityIdentity vs. Role ConfusionIntimacy vs. IsolationGenerativity vs. StagnationIntegrity vs. Despair

8. 8Psychoanalytic Theory

9. 9Behaviorism TheoryWatson 1878 – 1958emphasis on unconscioushidden urgesall behavior is learnedspecific laws of learning apply to conditioning

10. 10Behaviorism Theory

11. 11Behaviorism TheoryLaw of Behavior - learning theories…all behavior is learned step by stepconditioningthe processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuliclassical conditioning - respondent conditioninga person or animal is conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulusoperant conditioning - instrumental conditioninglearning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired – the person will repeat the actionreinforcementA technique for conditioning behavior where behavior is followed by something desired

12. 12Behaviorism TheorySocial Learning Theoryan extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behaviormodelingThe central process of social learning by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them

13. 13Cognitive TheoryThe third grand theoryemphasized the structure and development of thought processes

14. 14Cognitive TheoryJean Piaget’s 4 Stages sensorimotorpreoperationalconcrete operationalformal operational

15. 15Cognitive Theory

16. 16Cognitive TheoryCognitive equilibrium—state of mental balance.If threatened, how do we achieve equilibrium again? Assimilation: incorporate new events into existing schemasAccommodation: change schema

17. 17Emergent Theories…multicultural and multidisciplinary , developed not only by men of European ancestry but also by many non-Western, non-White, and female scientists…

18. 18Sociocultural Theory an emergent theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction between each person and the surrounding social and cultural forcesLev Vygotsky

19. 19Sociocultural Theorycultural variationadult responses are shaped by culturesociety provides not only customs but also the tools and theoriesguided participationa technique in which skilled mentors help novices lean not only by providing instruction, but also by allowing direct, shared involvement in the activity

20. 20Sociocultural TheoryZone of proximal developmentskills, knowledge, and concepts that the learner is close to acquiring but cannot master without help

21. 21Zone of proximal development

22. 22Epigenetic TheoryAn emergent theory of development that considers both the genetic origins of behavior (within each person and within each species) and the direct, systematic influences that environmental forces have over time on genes

23. 23Genetic AdaptationSelective adaptationthe process by which humans and other organisms gradually adjust to their environmentgenes for the traits that are most useful will become more frequent, thus making survival of species more likely.

24. 24What Theories ContributePsychoanalytic theory has made us aware of the importance of early childhood experiences.Behaviorism has shown effect of the immediate environment on learning.Cognitive theory shows how intellectual process and thinking affect actions.Sociocultural theory has reminded us of the importance of culture in learning.Epigenetic theory reminds us of the power of genes and their interaction with the environment.

25. 25The Nature-Nurture ControversyNatureThe genes that people inheritNurtureTo all the environmental influences

26. 26The Nature-Nurture ControversyNature and Nurture Always interactHeredity vs. EnvironmentHow much of any characteristic,behavior, or pattern of development isthe result of genes and how much isthe result of experience?

27. 27Theoretical Perspectives on…Hyperactivity NatureThey are usually boys who have male relatives with the same problemThey are overactive in every context, home as well as schoolThey are often calmed by stimulants, such as Ritalin, Adderall, and even coffeeNurtureThe rapid increase in ADHA (from 1 to 5 percent of all U.S. children within the past 50 years) cannot be genetic, since selective adaptation takes centuriesMany environmental factors correlate with ADHD, including crowded homes, television, lead, food additives, and rigid teaching

28. 28Theoretical Perspectives on…HomosexualityNature vs. NurtureChildren raised by homosexual couples (either adopted or the biological offspring of one of the parents) become heterosexual or homosexual in about the same proportions as children raised by heterosexual and do not seem particularly rebellious or emotionally disturbed.

29. 29No Answer Yet