This document provides an overview of key concepts in the study of human development, including: 1. The major domains and periods of development that are studied, such as physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development from prenatal stages through emerging adulthood. 2. Major theories that aim to describe and explain human development, including psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and sociocultural perspectives. 3. Key research strategies used to understand development, such as observational studies, interviews, experiments, and longitudinal and cross-sectional designs.

1. CHAPTER 1
History, Theory, and Research Strategies

2. • Domains and Periods of Development
• Theory
• Research Strategies
Plan for lecture

3. Domains of Development
Domain Changes in
Physical  Body size & proportions, appearance
 Functioning of body systems, health
 Perceptual & motor capacities
Cognitive  Intellectual abilities
Emotional
and Social
 Emotional communication
 Self-understanding, knowledge about
others
 Interpersonal skills & relationships
 Moral reasoning & behavior

4. Domains of Development
Physical
Cognitive
Emotional/
Social

5. Periods of Development
Prenatal Conception to birth
Infancy and Toddlerhood Birth to 2 years
Early Childhood 2 to 6 years
Middle Childhood 6 to 11 years
Adolescence 11 to 18 years
Emerging Adulthood 18 to 25 years

6. Theory
An orderly, integrated set of
statements that describes,
explains, and predicts
behavior
 Gives meaning to what we
see
 Provides a basis for
practical action

7. Basic Issues in Development
1. Continuous or discontinuous?
2. One course of development or many
possible courses?
3. Relative influence of nature and nurture?

8. Continuous or Discontinuous
Development

9. One or many courses?
 One course: Stage theorists assume that
people everywhere follow the same sequence
of development
 Multiple courses: Distinct contexts may result
in different paths of change
 Combination of personal and environmental
circumstances

10. Nature or Nurture?
Nature
 Inborn, biologic givens
 Based on genetic
inheritance
Nurture
 Physical and social world
influences biological and
psychological
development

11. Stability vs. Plasticity?
Stability
 Individuals high or
low in a characteristic
remain so at later
ages
 Heredity and early
experience are
important
Plasticity
 Change is possible,
based on new,
influential
experiences
Implications for practice?

12. Resilience
Ability to adapt effectively in the face
of threats to development:
Personal characteristics
A warm parental relationship
Social support outside the immediate
family
Community resources and opportunities

13. Early Scientific Study
of Development
Evolutionary
Theory
Darwin’s ideas of natural selection
and survival of the fittest are still
influential
Normative
Approach
Hall & Gesell: Age-related
averages based on measurements
of large numbers of children
Mental Testing
Movement
Binet & Simon: Early developers
of intelligence tests

14. Historical Views of Childhood
Medieval Era Childhood (to age 7 or 8) regarded
as separate phase with special
needs, protections
16th Century Puritan “child depravity” views
17th Century John Locke “tabula rasa” or “blank
slate” view; continuous
development
18th Century Jean-Jacques Rousseau “noble
savages” view; natural maturation

15. Freud’s Three Parts of
the Personality
Id
 Largest portion of the mind
 Unconscious, present at birth
 Source of biological needs & desires
Ego
 Conscious, rational part of mind
 Emerges in early infancy
 Redirects id impulses acceptably
Superego
 The conscience
 Develops from ages 3 to 6, from
interactions with caregivers

16. Freud’s
Psychosexual
Stages

17. Erikson

18. Behaviorism & Social Learning
Classical Conditioning • Stimulus – Response
Operant Conditioning
https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=FMnhyGozLyE
• Reinforcers &
punishments
Social-Cognitive
Approach
• Modeling,
observational
learning
• Personal standards
and self-efficacy

19. Behavior Modification
 Combines conditioning and modeling to
eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase
desirable responses

20. Piaget’s Stages of
Cognitive Development

21. Information-Processing
Flowchart
Figure 1.3

22. Ethology
 Concerned with the adaptive or survival value
of behavior and its evolutionary history
 Roots traced to Darwin:
 Imprinting
 Critical period
 Sensitive period

23. Sensitive Period
 An optimal time for
certain capacities to
emerge
 Individual is especially
responsive to
environment
 Boundaries less
clearly defined than a
critical period

24. Evolutionary
Developmental Psychology
 Seeks to understand adaptive value of human
competencies
 Studies cognitive, emotional, and social
competencies as they change with age
 Expands upon ethology
 Wants to understand the entire organism–
environment system

25. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Transmission of culture
to new generation
 Beliefs, customs, skills
Social interaction vital
for cognitive
development
 Cooperative dialogues
with more
knowledgeable
members of society

26. Ecological Systems Theory
 Development within a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of the
surrounding environment
 Microsystem
 Mesosystem
 Exosystem
 Macrosystem
 Chronosystem

27. Dynamic Systems Perspective

28. A. Development is a continuous, gradual
progression, with new abilities, skills,
and knowledge gradually added at a
relatively uniform pace
B. Development occurs at different rates,
alternating between periods of little
change and periods of abrupt, rapid
change
Your Stance on Development1

29. A. All humans follow the same general
sequence of development
B. Each individual has a unique course of
development
Your Stance on Development2

30. A. Children respond to the world in much
the same way as adults. The main
difference is that children’s thinking is
less sophisticated and complex than
adults’
B. Children have unique ways of thinking
about and responding to the world that
are very different from those of adults
Your Stance on Development3

31. A. An individual’s personality is mostly
determined by heredity
B. An individual’s personality can be
modified through caregiving experiences
Your Stance on Development4

32. - Which theory or theories take stances most similar
to your own?
- Would you choose one theory to represent your
stance or elements of several?
- Which aspects of your chosen theory or theories
make it more attractive than the others?
Your Stance on Development

33. Table 1.3
Your Stance
1. A- Continuous
B- Discontinuous
2. A- One course
B- Many courses
3. A- Continuous
B- Discontinuous
4. A- Nature
B- Nurture

34. The Process of Research

35. Scientific Research
 Hypothesis: prediction drawn directly from a
theory
 Research methods: activities of participants
 Research designs: overall plans for research
studies

36. Observational Research
Naturalistic
Observation
 In the “field” or
natural environment
where behavior
happens
Structured
Observations
 Laboratory situation
set up to evoke
behavior of interest
 All participants have
equal chance to
display behavior

37. Marshmallow Test
 Watch the video here:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9
614HQ

38. Marshmallow Test

39. Interviews
Clinical Interview
 Flexible,
conversational style
 Probes for
participant’s point of
view
Structured
Interview
 Each participant is
asked same
questions in the
same way
 May use
questionnaires, get
answers from groups
 Not as in-depth

40. Case Study
 Brings together wide range
of information, including
interviews, observations,
test scores
 Best used to study unique
phenomena
 May be subjective

41. Ethnography
 To understand a culture or social group rather
than an individual
 Descriptive, qualitative technique
 Often through participant observation

42. Correlational Design
 Researchers gather
information and make no
effort to alter their
experiences.
 Correlation coefficients:
 The magnitude of the
number indicates the
strength of the relationship.
 The sign of the number
indicates the direction of the
relationship.

43. Positive correlation Negative correlation

44. Correlational Design
 Cause and effect cannot be inferred
Maternal
Depression
Child
Behavior
Problems

45. Experimental Design
Independent Variable
 Experimenter changes
or manipulates
 Expected to cause
changes in another
variable
Dependent Variable
 Experimenter
measures but does not
manipulate
 Expected to be
influenced by the
independent variable

46. Modified Experiments
Field
Experiments
 Use rare
opportunities for
random assignment
in natural settings
Natural
Experiments
 Compare differences
in treatment that
already exist
 Groups chosen to
match characteristics
as much as possible

47. Designs for Studying
Development
Longitudinal
Same participants studied repeatedly at
different ages
Cross-sectional
Participants of differing ages all studied at
the same time
Sequential
Several similar cross-sectional or
longitudinal studies are conducted at
varying times.
Microgenetic
Participants are presented with a novel
task, and their mastery is followed over a
series of sessions.

48. Sequential Designs

49. Children’s Research Rights
 Protection from
harm
 Informed consent
 Privacy
 Knowledge of
results
 Beneficial
treatments