This document discusses emotions and the brain systems involved in emotional processing. It describes theories of emotion such as the James-Lange theory. It also discusses stress and how stress impacts physiological systems like the HPA axis and immune system. Prolonged stress can weaken the immune system. The document also covers topics like anxiety disorders, the role of the amygdala in fear processing, and medications used to treat anxiety like benzodiazepines.

1. Fear Anger Sadness Joy Disgust Surprise Emotional Behaviors

2. What is Emotion? Observable behaviors as opposed to feelings which are private experiences

3. Emotions & Arousal Strong Emotions Impair reasoning but a lack of emotions can also lead to poor judgment Absence Seizure Originally called petite mal Type of epilepsy where a person has brief periods when they stare blankly without talking or moving

4. Emotions & Arousal James-Lange Theory Autonomic arousal & skeletal actions occur before an emotion The cognitive component of an emotion does not need feedback from the rest of the body Pure Autonomic Failure Condition where output from the ANS to the body fails, either completely or almost completely Locked-in Syndrome Caused by damage to the ventral part of the brain stem

5. Emotions & Arousal Panic Disorder A condition marked by episodes of extreme sympathetic nervous system arousal interpreted as fear Perceptions of Bodily Reactions are Important for Interpreting Emotions Extreme arousal is recognized as fear or panic Stimuli inducing smiling or laughter are considered pleasant or amusing

6. Emotion Areas in the Brain Limbic System Includes: cingulated cortex, hypothalamus, thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala & olfactory bulbs Other Emotional Areas Medial frontal cortex (anger) & insular cortex (disgust) Hemispheric Response to Emotions Right hemisphere especially activated by unpleasant emotions

7. Stress & Health Stress A nonspecific response of the body to any demand made on it Psychosomatic Illness An illness whose onset is influenced by personality, emotions or experience Ulcers: from a combination of bacteria & current & past experiences & drugs irritating the digestive system wall Heart disease: more common in frequently hostile individuals Voodoo death: due to the belief that a curse has destined death Serendipity: stumbling on something interesting while looking for something else

8. Stress & the HPA Axis Stress Activates the ANS & the HPA Axis Prolonged stress keeps the HPA axis active Stress activates the hypothalamus which sends messages to the anterior pituitary gland to secrete ACTH ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol, which increases blood sugar levels & enhances metabolism

9. The Immune System Leukocytes White blood cells produced in the bone marrow before migrating to the thymus gland, spleen, & peripheral lymph nodes They patrol the blood & other body fluids looking for intruders Antigens Antibody-generator molecules Proteins located on a cell’s surface When leukocytes discover cells with antigens different from the rest of the body, they attack

10. The Immune System Macrophages A cell that surrounds a bacterium or other intruder, digests it & exposes its antigens on the microphages own surface B & T Cells B cells are leukocytes which mature on the bone marrow & produce specific antibodies to attack an antigen T cells are leukocytes which mature in the thymus There are 2 types of T cells: cytotoxic T cells which directly attack an intruder & helper T cells which stimulate other T cells or B cells to multiply more rapidly

11. The Immune System Antibodies Y-shaped proteins that circulate in the blood & attach to one specific kind of antigen The body develops antibodies against antigens that it has encountered in the past

12. The Immune System Natural Killer Cells Blood cells which attach to cells infected with viruses & certain kinds of tumor cells Cytokines Chemicals released by the immune system which cross the blood-brain barrier & influence neuronal function

13. Psychoneuroimmunology Stress & the Immune System & the CNS How stress influences the immune system & how the immune system influences the CNS The body can handle stressors like illness Prolonged stress leads to prolonged increases in cortisol & other hormones This directs energy away from synthesizing proteins, including immune system proteins Extremely prolonged stress weakens the immune system High cortisol levels impair memory & increase the vulnerability of neurons in the hippocampus Toxins from overstimulation kill neurons

14. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Frequent distressing flashbacks & nightmares about the event, avoidance of reminders of it, & exaggerated arousal in response to noises & other stimuli Victims have a smaller than average hippocampus & lower than normal levels of cortisol

15. Attack Behaviors Trigger is Some Sort of Pain or Threat Primed by stimulating corticomedial area of the amygdala (seen in hamsters) This area shows increased neural activity immediately after a 1 st attack Heredity & Environment in Violence Evidence of genetic influences in aggression, antisocial & criminal behavior (twin studies) Monozygotic twins more likely to commit crimes & be aggressive than dizygotic Adoptees with parents with criminal records more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors

16. Attack Behaviors Hormones In animals, male aggressive behavior is linked to testosterone In humans, higher levels of testosterone related to higher violent activities and criminal behaviors Women injected with testosterone showed increase in heart rate when looking at a picture of angry face Suggests that testosterone may induce people to attend longer & respond more vigorously to certain situations

17. Attack Behaviors Brain Abnormalities & Violence Intermittent explosive disorder: Condition marked by occasional outbursts of violent behavior with little or no provocation Sometimes linked with temporal lobe epilepsy Damage to the prefrontal cortex induces fighting & threatening responses with less provocation Prefrontal damage causes a general loss of inhibition & a tendency toward many socially inappropriate behaviors, not just violence

18. Attack Behaviors Serotonin Synapses & Aggressive Behavior Turnover: The amount of release & resynthesis of a neurotransmitter by a presynaptic neuron Social isolation induces a drop in serotonin turnover in brains of male mice; this further increases the possibility of aggressive behavior toward other males Monkeys with the lowest serotonin turnover had the highest amount of aggressive behaviors; they also died earlier Low serotonin turnover are not only linked specifically to violence but to decreased inhibition impulses In humans, lower-than-normal serotonin turnover was found in those convicted of violent crimes or attempted suicides Neurons synthesize serotonin from tryptophan A diet high in other amino acids but low in tryptophan impairs the brain’s ability to synthesize serotonin An increase in aggressive behaviors was found in young men a few hours after eating a diet low in tryptophan

19. Escape, Fear & Anxiety The Amygdala Fear is a temporary experience Anxiety is longer lasting The startle reflex The response to a sudden, unexpected loud noise The amygdala enhances the startle reflex by sending axons to the hypothalamus & relaying information to the central gray area of the midbrain

20. Escape, Fear & Anxiety Urbach-Wiethe Disease A genetic disorder causing gradual atrophy of the amygdale Produces a weakened experience of fear-related emotions Those with this disorder have difficulty recognizing fear in others

21. Anxiety-reducing Drugs Cholecystokinin One of the main excitatory neuromodulators in the amygdale Injections of CCK-stimulating drugs into the amygdala enhances the startle reflex Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA) Main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the amygdale Injections of GABA-blockers induce panic Barbiturates Tranquilizers of years back Are addicting & can be fatal

22. Anxiety-reducing Drugs Benzodiazepines Commonly used class of tranquilizers Includes: diazepam, chlordiazepoxide & alprozolam They bind to a receptor site on the GABA A receptor complex which causes the receptor to change shape & bind more tightly They exert their antianxiety effects in the amygdala & hypothalamus

23. Anxiety-reducing Drugs Diazepam-binding Inhibitor (DBI) aka Endozepine A protein that binds to the same sites as benzodiazepines but blocks their behavioral effects Alcohol’s effects Alcohol has similar behavioral effects as benzodiazepines Combinations of alcohol & tranquilizers can be fatal Alcohol, benzodiazepines & barbiturates exhibit cross-tolerance