This document discusses theories and models of emotion proposed by various psychologists. It summarizes Ekman's work identifying six basic universal emotions (fear, disgust, anger, surprise, happiness, sadness) and later expanding the list. Plutchik's wheel of emotions model is described as showing how emotions can be combined. The document also discusses emotion components, similarities and opposites between emotions, and the evolutionary purpose of emotions.

2. In their book "Discovering Psychology,"
authors Don Hockenbury and Sandra E.
Hockenbury suggest that emotion is a complex
psychological state that involves three distinct
components: a subjective experience, a
physiological response, and a behavioral or
expressive response.
•In 1972, psychologist Paul Ekman suggested
that there are six basic emotions that are
universal throughout human cultures: fear,
disgust, anger, surprise, happiness, and
sadness.
•In the 1980s, Robert Plutchik introduced
another emotion classification system known
as the "wheel of emotions." This model
demonstrated how different emotions can be
combined or mixed together, much the way an
artist mixes primary colors to create other
colors.
•In 1999, Ekman expanded his list to include a
number of other basic emotions, including
embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame,
pride, satisfaction, and amusement.

3. The eight primary emotions that he
identified, which are the basis for all
others, are grouped into polar
opposites:
•joy and sadness
•acceptance and disgust
•fear and anger
•surprise and anticipation
The eight emotions are arranged by
colors that establish a set of similar
emotions. Primary emotions are
located in the second circle. Emotions
with softer colors are a mix of the two
primary emotions.

4. •Animals and Humans
A human's midbrain (or the limbic system) is similar to that of other mammals. Animals and humans
experience the same basic emotions.
•Evolutionary History
Emotions came into being as part of the evolutionary process long before apes or humans existed.
•Survival Issues
The most influential role of emotions is to help us survive.
•Prototype Patterns
These are the common identifiable patterns and elements that make up each emotion.
•Basic Emotions
The most basic emotions are the primary ones: trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, and
joy.
•Combinations
The adding up of these various primary emotions will produce new ones such as love = (joy+ trust), guilt =
(joy + fear), and delight = (joy + surprise).
•Hypothetical Constructs
Emotions are constructs, or ideas, that help describe a certain experience.
•Opposites
Like many things in nature, there is a duality with emotions, hence each one has its polar opposite:
– saddens is the opposite of joy
– trust is the opposite of disgust
– fear is the opposite of anger
– surprise is the opposite of anticipation
•Similarity
The degree of similarity determines which emotions are more related, and which ones are the complete
opposite.
•Intensity
This degree of change in intensity, from very strong to not so much, produces the diverse amount of
emotions we can feel. Such as:
– trust goes from acceptance to admiration, fear goes from timidity to terror, surprise goes from uncertainty
to amazement, sadness goes from gloominess to grief, disgust goes from dislike to loathing, anger goes from
annoyance to fury, anticipation goes from interest to vigilance, joy goes from serenity to ecstasy

5. Emotions & Arousal
StrongEmotions
Impair reasoning but a lack of
emotions can also lead to poor
judgment
• AbsenceSeizure
Originally called petite mal
Type of epilepsy where a
person has brief periods when
they stare blankly without
talking or moving

6. Emotions & Arousal
James-Lange Theory
Autonomic arousal & skeletal
actions occur before an emotion
The cognitive component of an
emotion does not need feedback
from the rest of the body
• Pure Autonomic
Failure
Condition where output from the
ANS to the body fails, either
completely or almost completely
• Locked-in Syndrome
Caused by damage to the ventral
part of the brain stem

7. Emotions & Arousal
PanicDisorder
Aconditionmarkedbyepisodesof extreme
sympatheticnervoussystemarousal
interpretedasfear
• Perceptions of Bodily
Reactions areImportant for
InterpretingEmotions
Extremearousal isrecognizedasfear or
panic
Stimuliinducing smilingorlaughterare
consideredpleasant or amusing

8. Emotion Areas in the
Brain
Lim b ic
S y s t e m
Includes: cingulated cortex,
hypothalamus, thalamus,
hippocampus, amygdala & olfactory
bulbs
• O t h e r
E m o t io n a l
Ar e a s
Medial frontal cortex (anger) &
insular cortex (disgust)
• H e m is p h e r ic
R e s p o n s e t o
E m o t io n s

9. St ress & Healt h
Stress
A nonspecific response of the body to any
demand made on it
• PsychosomaticIllness
An illness whose onset is influenced by
personality, emotions or experience
Ulcers: from a combination of bacteria
& current & past experiences & drugs
irritating the digestive system wall
Heart disease: more common in
frequently hostile individuals
Voodoo death: due to the belief that a
curse has destined death
Serendipity: stumbling on something
interesting while looking for something
else

10. Stress & the HPA
Axis
Stress Activates the
ANS & the HPA Axis
Prolonged stress keeps the HPA
axis active
Stress activates the hypothalamus
which sends messages to the
anterior pituitary gland to secrete
ACTH
ACTH stimulates the adrenal
cortex to secrete cortisol, which
increases blood sugar levels &
enhances metabolism

11. The Immune
System
Leukocytes
White blood cells produced in the
bone marrow before migrating to
the thymus gland, spleen, &
peripheral lymph nodes
They patrol the blood & other
body fluids looking for intruders
• Antigens
Antibody-generator molecules
Proteins located on a cell’s surface
When leukocytes discover cells
with antigens different from the
rest of the body, they attack

12. The Immune System
Macrophages
Acell that surrounds abacteriumor other
intruder, digests it & exposes its antigens
onthemicrophages ownsurface
• B & T Cells
B cells are leukocytes which mature on the
bone marrow&produce specific antibodies
toattackanantigen
Tcellsareleukocytes whichmatureinthe
thymus
Thereare2types of Tcells: cytotoxic T
cellswhichdirectlyattackanintruder &
helper Tcellswhichstimulateother Tcells
or Bcellstomultiplymorerapidly

13. The Immune System
Antibodies
Y-shapedproteinsthat circulateinthe
blood&attachtoonespecific kindof
antigen
Thebodydevelops antibodiesagainst
antigensthat it hasencounteredinthepast

14. The Immune System
N a t u r a l K ille r
C e lls
Bloodcellswhichattachtocellsinfected
withviruses &certainkindsof tumor cells
• C y t o k in e s
Chemicalsreleasedbytheimmunesystem
whichcrosstheblood-brainbarrier &
influenceneuronal function

15. Psychoneuroimmun
ology
Stress & the Immune System & the CNS
How stress influences the immune system & how the immune
system influences the CNS
The body can handle stressors like illness
Prolonged stress leads to prolonged increases in cortisol & other
hormones
This directs energy away from synthesizing proteins, including
immune system proteins
Extremely prolonged stress weakens the immune system
High cortisol levels impair memory & increase the vulnerability of
neurons in the hippocampus
Toxins from overstimulation kill neurons

16. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Symptoms
Frequent distressing flashbacks &
nightmares about the event,
avoidance of reminders of it, &
exaggerated arousal in response to
noises & other stimuli
Victims have a smaller than
average hippocampus & lower than
normal levels of cortisol

17. At t ack Behaviors
Trigger isSomeSort of Painor Threat
Primed by stimulating corticomedial area of the amygdala (seen in hamsters)
This area shows increased neural activity immediately after a 1st attack
• Heredity&Environment inViolence
Evidence of genetic influences in aggression, antisocial & criminal behavior (twin studies)
Monozygotic twins more likely to commit crimes & be aggressive than dizygotic
Adoptees with parents with criminal records more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors

18. At t ack Behaviors
H o r m o n e s
Inanimals, maleaggressivebehavior is
linkedtotestosterone
Inhumans, higher levels of testosterone
related tohigherviolent activities and
criminal behaviors
Womeninjectedwithtestosteroneshowed
increaseinheart ratewhenlookingat a
pictureof angryface
Suggests that testosterone may induce
peopletoattendlonger &respondmore
vigorouslytocertainsituations

19. At t ack Behaviors
Brain Abnormalities &
Violence
Intermittent explosive disorder:
Condition marked by occasional
outbursts of violent behavior with
little or no provocation
Sometimes linked with temporal
lobe epilepsy
Damage to the prefrontal cortex
induces fighting & threatening
responses with less provocation
Prefrontal damage causes a
general loss of inhibition & a
tendency toward many socially
inappropriate behaviors, not just
violence

20. At t ack Behaviors
Serotonin Synapses & Aggressive Behavior
Turnover:Theamountofrelease&resynthesisofaneurotransmitterbyapresynapticneuron
Socialisolation inducesadropinserotoninturnoverinbrainsof malemice;this further
increasesthepossibility ofaggressive behavior towardothermales
Monkeyswiththelowestserotoninturnoverhadthehighestamountofaggressive behaviors;
theyalsodiedearlier
Lowserotoninturnover arenotonlylinked specifically toviolence buttodecreasedinhibition
impulses
Inhumans,lower-than-normalserotoninturnoverwasfoundinthoseconvictedofviolentcrimes
orattemptedsuicides
Neuronssynthesize serotoninfromtryptophan
Adiet highinotheraminoacidsbutlowin tryptophan impairs thebrain’s abilitytosynthesize
serotonin
Anincreaseinaggressive behaviors wasfoundinyoung menafewhoursafter eatingadietlow
intryptophan

22. Escape, Fear & Anxiety
Urbach-Wiethe
Disease
A genetic disorder causing
gradual atrophy of the
amygdale
Produces a weakened
experience of fear-related
emotions
Those with this disorder have
difficulty recognizing fear in
others

23. Anxiety-reducing
Drugs
Cholecystokinin
Oneof themainexcitatoryneuromodulators
intheamygdale
Injectionsof CCK-stimulatingdrugsintothe
amygdala enhances thestartlereflex
• Gamma Amino
Butyric Acid (GABA)
Maininhibitoryneurotransmitter inthe
amygdale
Injections ofGABA-blockers inducepanic
• Barbiturates
Tranquilizersof yearsback
Are addicting&canbefatal

24. Anxiety-reducing
Drugs
Benzodiazepines
Commonly used class of
tranquilizers
Includes: diazepam,
chlordiazepoxide & alprozolam
They bind to a receptor site on the
GABAA receptor complex which
causes the receptor to change shape
& bind more tightly
They exert their antianxiety effects
in the amygdala & hypothalamus

25. Anxiety-reducing
Drugs
• Diazepam-binding Inhibitor (DBI) aka
Endozepine
A protein that binds to the same sites as benzodiazepines but
blocks their behavioral effects
• Alcohol’s effects
Alcohol has similar behavioral effects as benzodiazepines
Combinations of alcohol & tranquilizers can be fatal
Alcohol, benzodiazepines & barbiturates exhibit cross-tolerance