This document is a slide presentation on chapter 3 of the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses chemical compounds, including molecular and ionic compounds, molecular mass, composition, oxidation states, naming conventions, and focuses on mass spectrometry. It provides examples of calculating empirical formulas and assigning oxidation states, and discusses isomers, functional groups of carboxylic acids and alcohols.
This chapter discusses thermochemistry and the concepts of heat, work, internal energy, enthalpy, and the first law of thermodynamics. It introduces terminology like system, surroundings, heat capacity, and heat of reaction. Methods for determining heats of reaction through calorimetry are presented, including bomb calorimetry and coffee cup calorimetry. The relationship between internal energy, enthalpy, and heat of reaction is explored. Standard states and standard enthalpy changes are defined. Hess's law for determining heats of reaction indirectly is introduced.
This document is a presentation on chemical compounds from a general chemistry textbook. It discusses different types of chemical compounds such as molecular and ionic compounds. It explains how to determine the formula of a compound from its composition percentages and introduces oxidation states as a tool for describing compounds. The presentation also covers naming conventions for inorganic and organic compounds, including binary compounds, acids, and functional groups. Visual examples are provided to illustrate key compounds and concepts.
This document summarizes Chapter 4 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses chemical reactions and stoichiometry. It covers writing and balancing chemical equations, determining limiting reagents, reaction stoichiometry including mole ratios and mass calculations, and reaction types including consecutive, simultaneous, and overall reactions. The chapter summary ends with a list of practice problems from the chapter.
This document discusses chemical reactions and stoichiometry. It introduces chemical equations and how to balance them. It explains how stoichiometry is used to quantify relationships in chemical formulas, chemical equations, mole ratios and reaction yields. Limiting reagents and theoretical, actual and percent yields of products are also covered. Finally, it discusses consecutive, simultaneous and overall reactions as well as reaction intermediates.
This chapter discusses the quantum mechanical model of the atom. It covers early theories of electromagnetic radiation and the photoelectric effect that led to the development of quantum theory. The chapter then describes the Bohr model of the atom and its limitations. It introduces wave mechanics and the Schrodinger equation for describing electron orbitals. The chapter covers electron configurations, orbital shapes, and how quantum numbers are used to interpret and represent atomic orbitals. It also discusses how electron configurations relate to the periodic table.
This document provides an outline for a lesson on transition metals and complex ions. It includes:
1) A review of trends in the d-block elements from Topic 3.
2) An explanation of what defines a transition metal and their common properties.
3) A discussion of how transition metals can form complex ions with variable oxidation states and an investigation of complex ions.
4) An explanation of why complex ions are often colored due to d-orbital splitting effects.
This document provides an overview of key concepts about acids and bases from sections 18.1 through 18.4. It introduces the Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis models of acids and bases. It describes the properties of acids and bases and how pH and pKa/pKb values relate to acid and base strength. Neutralization reactions between acids and bases are discussed along with acid-base titrations and buffered solutions.
This document is a slide presentation on chapter 3 of the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses chemical compounds, including molecular and ionic compounds, molecular mass, composition, oxidation states, naming conventions, and focuses on mass spectrometry. It provides examples of calculating empirical formulas and assigning oxidation states, and discusses isomers, functional groups of carboxylic acids and alcohols.
This chapter discusses thermochemistry and the concepts of heat, work, internal energy, enthalpy, and the first law of thermodynamics. It introduces terminology like system, surroundings, heat capacity, and heat of reaction. Methods for determining heats of reaction through calorimetry are presented, including bomb calorimetry and coffee cup calorimetry. The relationship between internal energy, enthalpy, and heat of reaction is explored. Standard states and standard enthalpy changes are defined. Hess's law for determining heats of reaction indirectly is introduced.
This document is a presentation on chemical compounds from a general chemistry textbook. It discusses different types of chemical compounds such as molecular and ionic compounds. It explains how to determine the formula of a compound from its composition percentages and introduces oxidation states as a tool for describing compounds. The presentation also covers naming conventions for inorganic and organic compounds, including binary compounds, acids, and functional groups. Visual examples are provided to illustrate key compounds and concepts.
This document summarizes Chapter 4 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses chemical reactions and stoichiometry. It covers writing and balancing chemical equations, determining limiting reagents, reaction stoichiometry including mole ratios and mass calculations, and reaction types including consecutive, simultaneous, and overall reactions. The chapter summary ends with a list of practice problems from the chapter.
This document discusses chemical reactions and stoichiometry. It introduces chemical equations and how to balance them. It explains how stoichiometry is used to quantify relationships in chemical formulas, chemical equations, mole ratios and reaction yields. Limiting reagents and theoretical, actual and percent yields of products are also covered. Finally, it discusses consecutive, simultaneous and overall reactions as well as reaction intermediates.
This chapter discusses the quantum mechanical model of the atom. It covers early theories of electromagnetic radiation and the photoelectric effect that led to the development of quantum theory. The chapter then describes the Bohr model of the atom and its limitations. It introduces wave mechanics and the Schrodinger equation for describing electron orbitals. The chapter covers electron configurations, orbital shapes, and how quantum numbers are used to interpret and represent atomic orbitals. It also discusses how electron configurations relate to the periodic table.
This document provides an outline for a lesson on transition metals and complex ions. It includes:
1) A review of trends in the d-block elements from Topic 3.
2) An explanation of what defines a transition metal and their common properties.
3) A discussion of how transition metals can form complex ions with variable oxidation states and an investigation of complex ions.
4) An explanation of why complex ions are often colored due to d-orbital splitting effects.
This document provides an overview of key concepts about acids and bases from sections 18.1 through 18.4. It introduces the Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis models of acids and bases. It describes the properties of acids and bases and how pH and pKa/pKb values relate to acid and base strength. Neutralization reactions between acids and bases are discussed along with acid-base titrations and buffered solutions.
The document provides information on chemical formulae, equations, calculations involving moles and molar mass/volume. It also covers the chemical properties and reactions of group 1 and 17 elements, as well as properties of salts such as solubility, color, and the effects of heating on different salts such as carbonates and nitrates.
SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SOME TRANSITION METAL COMPLEXES WITH A NEW ...EDITOR IJCRCPS
A new monodentate phosphorus yield Ph3P=CHC(O)C6H4-m-Br (L),was synthesized and characterized with elemental analysis as
well as various spectroscopic techniques. The reactions of the title ylide with mercury(II) halides in equimolar ratios using dry
methanol as solvent have yielded [L.HgX2]2 (X= Cl (1), Br (2), I (3)). The reaction of 1 equiv. this ylide with Cd(NO3)2.4H2O in the
same solvent give a polynuclear complex [Cd (L)(NO3)(μ-NO3)]n (4), followed by treatment with 2 equiv. AgNO3 and AgOTf led to
monomeric chelate complexes 5 and 6, respectively. Characterization of the obtained compounds was also performed by
elemental analysis, IR, 1H, 31P and 13C NMR. All DMSO-solved synthesized compounds were subjected to biological evaluation for
their antibacterial against 6 Gram positive and negative bacteria effects by disc diffusion method. Results showed antibacterial
activity for studied metal complexes and suggested their possible application as antibacterial agents.
Keywords: Phosphorus yields, mercury(II) complexes, silver(I) complexes, cadmium(II) complexes, antibacterial activity.
This chapter discusses solutions and their physical properties. It covers topics such as types of solutions, concentration units, intermolecular forces in mixtures, solution formation and equilibrium, solubility of gases, vapor pressure of solutions, osmotic pressure, freezing point depression and boiling point elevation, electrolyte solutions, and colloidal mixtures. It emphasizes understanding fundamental concepts and developing problem solving skills through a variety of practice problems.
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on the Group Two Elements. Designed for the new Exam Series of June 2017, but relevant for all series and exam boards.
The document summarizes various reactions of aldehydes and ketones. It describes how aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions, with the nucleophile attacking the carbonyl carbon. This forms an alkoxide intermediate which gives an alcohol upon protonation. It also discusses the relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones, hydrate and cyanohydrin formation, imine formation, oxidation and reductions of carbonyl compounds, acetal formation, and the Wittig reaction.
10 - Structure and Synthesis of Alcohols - Wade 7thNattawut Huayyai
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 10 of Organic Chemistry regarding alcohols. It discusses the structure of alcohols and water, classification of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols. It also covers IUPAC nomenclature for naming alcohols, and common names. Physical properties like boiling points and solubility in water are described. Methods for synthesizing alcohols are summarized, including hydration of alkenes, use of organometallic reagents like Grignard reagents and organolithium reagents, and reduction of carbonyl groups.
The document is a slide presentation on chapter 1 of a general chemistry textbook. Chapter 1 covers fundamental topics like the properties and states of matter, measurement units, and dimensional analysis. It defines physical and chemical properties, classifies matter as elements, compounds, and mixtures, and discusses techniques for separating mixtures. Key concepts explained include significant figures, temperature scales, volume, density, and unit conversions. The presentation concludes with sample end-of-chapter questions.
This chapter discusses chemical kinetics and reaction rates. It introduces concepts such as the rate of a reaction, methods of measuring reaction rates, and how concentration and temperature affect reaction rates. Specific reaction orders including zero-order, first-order, and second-order reactions are covered. Integrated rate laws are presented for determining reactant concentrations over time. The chapter also discusses theoretical models for chemical kinetics, including collision theory and activation energy, and how the Arrhenius equation describes the temperature dependence of reaction rates.
The document discusses net ionic equations, which involve writing molecular and ionic equations and identifying spectator ions. A molecular equation shows all species as whole units, while an ionic equation shows dissolved species as free ions. To write a net ionic equation, the molecular equation is first written and balanced, then molecules are broken into ions. Spectator ions that are present on both sides of the reaction are then canceled to give the net ionic equation. The document also discusses what substances will ionize or dissociate into ions in solution based on their type (salt, acid, base) and whether they are considered strong electrolytes.
This document provides information on tests for ions and gases from a chemistry course. It describes flame tests to identify Li+, Na+, K+, and Ca2+ cations, and tests using sodium hydroxide solution to detect NH4+ or produce precipitates of metal hydroxides to identify Cu2+, Fe2+, and Fe3+ cations. Anions can be identified by precipitates formed with silver nitrate and nitric acid for Cl-, Br-, or I-, barium chloride for SO42-, or by detecting carbon dioxide gas evolved from reaction with hydrochloric acid for CO32-. Common cations and anions are also listed.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook. It is chapter 6, which covers gases. The chapter contains 9 sections that discuss gas properties and laws, including gas pressure, the simple gas laws, the ideal gas equation, applications of the ideal gas equation like determining molar mass, gases in chemical reactions, mixtures of gases, kinetic molecular theory, gas properties related to kinetic molecular theory, and non-ideal gases. The chapter also includes sample problems and questions at the end.
15 - Conjugated Systems, Orbital Symmetry, and Ultraviolet Spectroscopy - Wad...Nattawut Huayyai
This document discusses conjugated systems and ultraviolet spectroscopy. It begins by defining conjugated and isolated double bonds. It then discusses the stability and heat of hydrogenation of conjugated systems. It introduces molecular orbitals and illustrates them for ethylene and 1,3-butadiene. It discusses the Diels-Alder reaction and its mechanism, stereochemistry, endo rule, and examples. It concludes by discussing ultraviolet spectroscopy, how conjugation affects absorption wavelengths, and provides examples of UV absorptions based on structure.
Chapter 05 an overview of organic reactions.Wong Hsiung
This document provides an overview of organic reactions, including the different types of organic reactions and how reaction mechanisms are used to describe the steps involved in organic reactions. It discusses several key aspects of organic reactions, including: 1) the common types of organic reactions such as addition, elimination, substitution, and rearrangement reactions, 2) how reaction mechanisms are used to describe the individual steps that occur in organic reactions, from reactants to products, and 3) the different types of steps that can be involved in reaction mechanisms, including the formation and breaking of covalent bonds. It also provides examples of reaction mechanisms, such as the addition of HBr to ethylene.
The document discusses the periodic table of elements, explaining how the elements are organized according to properties like atomic number and mass and describing important groups of elements including metals, non-metals, noble gases, and families like alkali metals and halogens. It provides details on the development of the periodic table and key aspects of classifying and understanding the elements.
This chapter discusses ethers, epoxides, and sulfides. It describes the structures, properties, nomenclature, synthesis, and reactions of these compounds. Ethers have the general formula R-O-R' and are named based on the alkyl groups attached to the oxygen. Epoxides are cyclic ethers also known as oxiranes. Sulfides are analogous to ethers but contain a sulfur atom rather than oxygen. Methods for synthesizing ethers include the Williamson ether synthesis and reactions of alcohols with alkyl halides or tosylates. Epoxides can be synthesized from alkenes using peroxycarboxylic acids. Ethers, epoxides and
This document is a slide presentation on chapter 5 from a general chemistry textbook. It covers the following topics:
- The nature of aqueous solutions, including strong/weak electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
- Precipitation reactions that form insoluble compounds. Net ionic equations are introduced.
- Acid-base reactions defined by Brønsted-Lowry theory. Examples of acid-base reactions are given.
- Oxidation-reduction reactions are introduced through examples. Half-reactions and balancing redox equations using the half-reaction method are covered.
- Oxidizing and reducing agents are defined based on whether the element is gaining or losing electrons in a
This document is a slide presentation from a chapter in a general chemistry textbook. The chapter covers fundamental topics in chemistry including the properties and states of matter, measurement systems, and dimensional analysis. It discusses physical and chemical properties, classification of substances and mixtures, separation techniques, units and conversions, temperature scales, density, and uncertainties in measurement.
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons between substances, causing some substances to be oxidized (lose electrons) and others to be reduced (gain electrons). In the examples given, sodium metal is oxidized when it reacts with bromine gas, losing electrons to become sodium ions. Bromine gas is reduced, gaining electrons to become bromide ions. Zinc metal also undergoes oxidation when reacting with hydrochloric acid, losing electrons to form zinc ions, while hydrogen ions are reduced, gaining electrons to form hydrogen gas. Oxidation numbers are used to indicate the charge of atoms in their elemental or ionic states and can help identify whether a substance is being oxidized or reduced in a redox reaction.
This document provides an introduction to transition metal complexes. It discusses the aqueous chemistry of metal ions, including hydrolysis. Hexaaqua ions form when transition metals dissolve in water and are surrounded by six water molecules in an octahedral structure. Hydrolysis occurs when water molecules attack these complexes, removing protons and forming hydroxide ions. This makes the solution acidic. The document also discusses stability constants, which are equilibrium constants for the formation of complex ions from their constituent parts. Higher stability constants indicate more stable complexes.
1) A device manager, either inside or outside the kernel, coordinates communication between applications, drivers, and devices by managing I/O requests and interrupt queues.
2) The device manager creates a kernel interface and API to control devices by activating their register-specific actions.
3) Device management involves polling, interrupts, and DMA and supports various I/O approaches including programmed, interrupt-driven, and DMA-driven I/O.
The document provides information on various chemistry concepts including atoms, isotopes, electrons, chemical bonds, acids, bases, and buffers. Key points covered include that isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties but different nuclear properties, electrons are arranged in shells and outer shell electrons determine chemical properties, and there are two main types of chemical bonds - ionic bonds formed through electrostatic interactions between ions and covalent bonds formed through shared pairs of electrons. It also notes that acids donate hydrogen ions and lower pH while bases accept hydrogen ions and raise pH. Buffers help maintain pH levels in a solution.
The document provides information on chemical formulae, equations, calculations involving moles and molar mass/volume. It also covers the chemical properties and reactions of group 1 and 17 elements, as well as properties of salts such as solubility, color, and the effects of heating on different salts such as carbonates and nitrates.
SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SOME TRANSITION METAL COMPLEXES WITH A NEW ...EDITOR IJCRCPS
A new monodentate phosphorus yield Ph3P=CHC(O)C6H4-m-Br (L),was synthesized and characterized with elemental analysis as
well as various spectroscopic techniques. The reactions of the title ylide with mercury(II) halides in equimolar ratios using dry
methanol as solvent have yielded [L.HgX2]2 (X= Cl (1), Br (2), I (3)). The reaction of 1 equiv. this ylide with Cd(NO3)2.4H2O in the
same solvent give a polynuclear complex [Cd (L)(NO3)(μ-NO3)]n (4), followed by treatment with 2 equiv. AgNO3 and AgOTf led to
monomeric chelate complexes 5 and 6, respectively. Characterization of the obtained compounds was also performed by
elemental analysis, IR, 1H, 31P and 13C NMR. All DMSO-solved synthesized compounds were subjected to biological evaluation for
their antibacterial against 6 Gram positive and negative bacteria effects by disc diffusion method. Results showed antibacterial
activity for studied metal complexes and suggested their possible application as antibacterial agents.
Keywords: Phosphorus yields, mercury(II) complexes, silver(I) complexes, cadmium(II) complexes, antibacterial activity.
This chapter discusses solutions and their physical properties. It covers topics such as types of solutions, concentration units, intermolecular forces in mixtures, solution formation and equilibrium, solubility of gases, vapor pressure of solutions, osmotic pressure, freezing point depression and boiling point elevation, electrolyte solutions, and colloidal mixtures. It emphasizes understanding fundamental concepts and developing problem solving skills through a variety of practice problems.
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on the Group Two Elements. Designed for the new Exam Series of June 2017, but relevant for all series and exam boards.
The document summarizes various reactions of aldehydes and ketones. It describes how aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions, with the nucleophile attacking the carbonyl carbon. This forms an alkoxide intermediate which gives an alcohol upon protonation. It also discusses the relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones, hydrate and cyanohydrin formation, imine formation, oxidation and reductions of carbonyl compounds, acetal formation, and the Wittig reaction.
10 - Structure and Synthesis of Alcohols - Wade 7thNattawut Huayyai
This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 10 of Organic Chemistry regarding alcohols. It discusses the structure of alcohols and water, classification of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols. It also covers IUPAC nomenclature for naming alcohols, and common names. Physical properties like boiling points and solubility in water are described. Methods for synthesizing alcohols are summarized, including hydration of alkenes, use of organometallic reagents like Grignard reagents and organolithium reagents, and reduction of carbonyl groups.
The document is a slide presentation on chapter 1 of a general chemistry textbook. Chapter 1 covers fundamental topics like the properties and states of matter, measurement units, and dimensional analysis. It defines physical and chemical properties, classifies matter as elements, compounds, and mixtures, and discusses techniques for separating mixtures. Key concepts explained include significant figures, temperature scales, volume, density, and unit conversions. The presentation concludes with sample end-of-chapter questions.
This chapter discusses chemical kinetics and reaction rates. It introduces concepts such as the rate of a reaction, methods of measuring reaction rates, and how concentration and temperature affect reaction rates. Specific reaction orders including zero-order, first-order, and second-order reactions are covered. Integrated rate laws are presented for determining reactant concentrations over time. The chapter also discusses theoretical models for chemical kinetics, including collision theory and activation energy, and how the Arrhenius equation describes the temperature dependence of reaction rates.
The document discusses net ionic equations, which involve writing molecular and ionic equations and identifying spectator ions. A molecular equation shows all species as whole units, while an ionic equation shows dissolved species as free ions. To write a net ionic equation, the molecular equation is first written and balanced, then molecules are broken into ions. Spectator ions that are present on both sides of the reaction are then canceled to give the net ionic equation. The document also discusses what substances will ionize or dissociate into ions in solution based on their type (salt, acid, base) and whether they are considered strong electrolytes.
This document provides information on tests for ions and gases from a chemistry course. It describes flame tests to identify Li+, Na+, K+, and Ca2+ cations, and tests using sodium hydroxide solution to detect NH4+ or produce precipitates of metal hydroxides to identify Cu2+, Fe2+, and Fe3+ cations. Anions can be identified by precipitates formed with silver nitrate and nitric acid for Cl-, Br-, or I-, barium chloride for SO42-, or by detecting carbon dioxide gas evolved from reaction with hydrochloric acid for CO32-. Common cations and anions are also listed.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook. It is chapter 6, which covers gases. The chapter contains 9 sections that discuss gas properties and laws, including gas pressure, the simple gas laws, the ideal gas equation, applications of the ideal gas equation like determining molar mass, gases in chemical reactions, mixtures of gases, kinetic molecular theory, gas properties related to kinetic molecular theory, and non-ideal gases. The chapter also includes sample problems and questions at the end.
15 - Conjugated Systems, Orbital Symmetry, and Ultraviolet Spectroscopy - Wad...Nattawut Huayyai
This document discusses conjugated systems and ultraviolet spectroscopy. It begins by defining conjugated and isolated double bonds. It then discusses the stability and heat of hydrogenation of conjugated systems. It introduces molecular orbitals and illustrates them for ethylene and 1,3-butadiene. It discusses the Diels-Alder reaction and its mechanism, stereochemistry, endo rule, and examples. It concludes by discussing ultraviolet spectroscopy, how conjugation affects absorption wavelengths, and provides examples of UV absorptions based on structure.
Chapter 05 an overview of organic reactions.Wong Hsiung
This document provides an overview of organic reactions, including the different types of organic reactions and how reaction mechanisms are used to describe the steps involved in organic reactions. It discusses several key aspects of organic reactions, including: 1) the common types of organic reactions such as addition, elimination, substitution, and rearrangement reactions, 2) how reaction mechanisms are used to describe the individual steps that occur in organic reactions, from reactants to products, and 3) the different types of steps that can be involved in reaction mechanisms, including the formation and breaking of covalent bonds. It also provides examples of reaction mechanisms, such as the addition of HBr to ethylene.
The document discusses the periodic table of elements, explaining how the elements are organized according to properties like atomic number and mass and describing important groups of elements including metals, non-metals, noble gases, and families like alkali metals and halogens. It provides details on the development of the periodic table and key aspects of classifying and understanding the elements.
This chapter discusses ethers, epoxides, and sulfides. It describes the structures, properties, nomenclature, synthesis, and reactions of these compounds. Ethers have the general formula R-O-R' and are named based on the alkyl groups attached to the oxygen. Epoxides are cyclic ethers also known as oxiranes. Sulfides are analogous to ethers but contain a sulfur atom rather than oxygen. Methods for synthesizing ethers include the Williamson ether synthesis and reactions of alcohols with alkyl halides or tosylates. Epoxides can be synthesized from alkenes using peroxycarboxylic acids. Ethers, epoxides and
This document is a slide presentation on chapter 5 from a general chemistry textbook. It covers the following topics:
- The nature of aqueous solutions, including strong/weak electrolytes and non-electrolytes.
- Precipitation reactions that form insoluble compounds. Net ionic equations are introduced.
- Acid-base reactions defined by Brønsted-Lowry theory. Examples of acid-base reactions are given.
- Oxidation-reduction reactions are introduced through examples. Half-reactions and balancing redox equations using the half-reaction method are covered.
- Oxidizing and reducing agents are defined based on whether the element is gaining or losing electrons in a
This document is a slide presentation from a chapter in a general chemistry textbook. The chapter covers fundamental topics in chemistry including the properties and states of matter, measurement systems, and dimensional analysis. It discusses physical and chemical properties, classification of substances and mixtures, separation techniques, units and conversions, temperature scales, density, and uncertainties in measurement.
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons between substances, causing some substances to be oxidized (lose electrons) and others to be reduced (gain electrons). In the examples given, sodium metal is oxidized when it reacts with bromine gas, losing electrons to become sodium ions. Bromine gas is reduced, gaining electrons to become bromide ions. Zinc metal also undergoes oxidation when reacting with hydrochloric acid, losing electrons to form zinc ions, while hydrogen ions are reduced, gaining electrons to form hydrogen gas. Oxidation numbers are used to indicate the charge of atoms in their elemental or ionic states and can help identify whether a substance is being oxidized or reduced in a redox reaction.
This document provides an introduction to transition metal complexes. It discusses the aqueous chemistry of metal ions, including hydrolysis. Hexaaqua ions form when transition metals dissolve in water and are surrounded by six water molecules in an octahedral structure. Hydrolysis occurs when water molecules attack these complexes, removing protons and forming hydroxide ions. This makes the solution acidic. The document also discusses stability constants, which are equilibrium constants for the formation of complex ions from their constituent parts. Higher stability constants indicate more stable complexes.
1) A device manager, either inside or outside the kernel, coordinates communication between applications, drivers, and devices by managing I/O requests and interrupt queues.
2) The device manager creates a kernel interface and API to control devices by activating their register-specific actions.
3) Device management involves polling, interrupts, and DMA and supports various I/O approaches including programmed, interrupt-driven, and DMA-driven I/O.
The document provides information on various chemistry concepts including atoms, isotopes, electrons, chemical bonds, acids, bases, and buffers. Key points covered include that isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties but different nuclear properties, electrons are arranged in shells and outer shell electrons determine chemical properties, and there are two main types of chemical bonds - ionic bonds formed through electrostatic interactions between ions and covalent bonds formed through shared pairs of electrons. It also notes that acids donate hydrogen ions and lower pH while bases accept hydrogen ions and raise pH. Buffers help maintain pH levels in a solution.
REDOX reactions Balancing by the Ion-electron method (acid medium)KALIUM academia
This document provides an overview of how to balance redox reactions using the ion-electron method in an acid medium. It explains the steps as follows:
1) Calculate the oxidation numbers of each atom in the reaction.
2) Identify which elements are being reduced and oxidized.
3) Write the half-reactions in ionic form.
4) Balance each half-reaction, balancing elements other than H/O first, then O, then H.
5) Balance charges by adding electrons.
6) Multiply half-reactions to equalize electrons.
7) Add the half-reactions together to give the complete ionic and molecular equations.
The
- Data structures allow for efficient processing and organization of large volumes of data. They define logical relationships between related data elements and how operations like storage, retrieval, and access are carried out on the data.
- Common data structures include arrays, lists, stacks, queues, trees, graphs, dictionaries, maps, hash tables, sets, and lattices. Linear data structures like arrays and lists store elements in a linear order, while non-linear structures like trees and graphs have more complex relationships between elements.
- Linked lists are a data structure where each element contains a link to the next element, rather than using contiguous memory locations. This allows for more flexible insertion and deletion than arrays. Doubly linked lists add a link to
This chapter discusses properties of solutions and concentration. It covers how temperature, pressure, surface area, and particle size affect solubility and dissolution rates. Methods of concentration like molarity, percent by mass/volume, and molality are defined. Colligative properties like vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, and freezing point depression that depend on the number of particles in solution are also explained. The chapter provides examples of calculating concentrations and colligative properties of solutions.
A solution is a mixture of two components, a solute and a solvent. The solute is the substance being dissolved and is less abundant, while the solvent does the dissolving and is more abundant. Solutions can become more or less concentrated depending on how much solute is dissolved. Molarity is used to describe concentration and is calculated as moles of solute per liter of solution. Dilutions add water to more concentrated solutions to make them weaker. Mixtures are classified based on particle size and whether they exhibit the Tyndall effect.
I Briefly described the uses of solvents and solutions. I have made four groups ( Uses of solvents and solution in homes, uses of solvents and solutions in agriculture, uses of solvents and solutions in industries, uses of solvents and solutions in medicine.) That is all for now, I hope it helps you in your exams!
The document discusses key concepts about solutions including:
1) Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances where the solute is dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.
2) For a solution to form, the intermolecular forces between solute and solvent particles must be strong enough to overcome interactions between pure components.
3) The enthalpy change of dissolving depends on the energy changes of separating solute and solvent particles and forming new interactions between them.
This document provides information about coordination compounds and Werner's theory of coordination compounds. It begins with an overview of coordination compounds and their importance. It then discusses Werner's theory, including his postulates about primary and secondary valences of metal ions and the coordination number being equal to the number of ligands bound to the metal ion. The document defines key terms related to coordination compounds such as coordination entity, central atom/ion, ligands, coordination number, and isomers. It also discusses nomenclature rules for writing formulas and names of mononuclear coordination compounds. The summary is as follows:
1) The document discusses Werner's pioneering theory of coordination compounds and key postulates about metal ion valences and coordination geometry
The document summarizes key concepts about chemical equilibrium including:
1) Chemical equilibrium occurs when the forward and reverse reactions of a chemical reaction proceed at the same rate.
2) At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
3) The equilibrium constant, K, provides a measure of how far a reaction proceeds towards products or reactants.
4) Changing conditions like concentration, temperature, or pressure will shift equilibrium to counteract the change according to Le Châtelier's principle.
1. The document contains solved problems related to solutions from Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 2.
2. It discusses concepts like mass percentage, mole fraction, molarity, molality, vapour pressure, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression and osmotic pressure.
3. Various types of problems are solved which involve calculating quantities related to solutions using concepts like Raoult's law and Henry's law.
This document discusses key concepts in chemical bonding including Lewis dot structures, ionic and covalent bonds, electronegativity, writing Lewis structures, formal charge, resonance structures, and exceptions to the octet rule. It provides Lewis dot symbols for common elements, defines ionic and covalent bonds, discusses how to write Lewis structures through a step-by-step process, and explains concepts like formal charge, resonance, and species that violate the octet rule. Tables and diagrams are included to further illustrate these important bonding concepts.
This document provides an overview of acids and bases including:
- Definitions of acids and bases according to Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, and Lewis theories
- How acids and bases react in water, forming conjugates
- Factors that influence acid and base strength such as polarity, resonance, and electronegativity
- Calculations involving acid and base dissociation constants (Ka and Kb) to determine pH
Operating System (Scheduling, Input and Output Management, Memory Management,...Project Student
Computer Science - Operating System
All the jobs and aspects of the operating system are explained and defined. The 5 main jobs of the operating system are outlined, this includes scheduling, managing input and output, memory management, virtual memory and paging and file management.
This document provides an overview of acid-base theories and key concepts such as:
[1] Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases. Acids donate protons while bases accept protons.
[2] Water can act as both an acid and a base in different reactions due to its amphiprotic nature.
[3] Equilibria involving proton transfers favor the reaction where the proton moves to the stronger base. The position of equilibrium is determined by relative acid and base strengths.
The document discusses several key factors that affect solubility:
1) The nature of the solute and solvent - whether they are polar or non-polar determines if they will dissolve in each other, with "like dissolving like".
2) Temperature - for gases, solubility decreases as temperature increases but for solids it generally increases as temperature increases.
3) Pressure - for gases, solubility increases as pressure over the solvent increases based on Henry's Law.
Colloids can be classified based on particle size as molecular, colloidal, or coarse dispersions. Colloidal dispersions have particle sizes between 1-500 nm. Colloids can also be classified as lyophilic, lyophobic, or association colloids based on particle interactions. Lyophilic particles are solvent-loving, lyophobic are solvent-hating, and association colloids form micelles. Purification of colloids can be done using dialysis, which separates colloidal particles from dissolved impurities based on size, or electrodialysis, which uses an electric field to enhance impurity removal.
The document summarizes the stages of the cell cycle. It describes that during interphase DNA replicates and proteins are produced. In prophase, chromosomes form as the nucleus fades. During premetaphase, the chromosomes line up in the middle. In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center. In anaphase, the chromosomes move to opposite ends. Telophase sees the disappearance of spindle fibers. Finally, cytokinesis separates the cell into two sister cells to complete the cycle and interphase begins again.
These rules provide guidelines for construction in rural areas of Bhutan. Some key points include:
1. All construction projects require approval from the Dzongkhag Administration through the Gewog Administration. Approval is not needed for temporary farm structures.
2. Developments must be planned carefully considering land use, infrastructure, natural environment and cultural heritage. Maximum plot coverage is 50% with minimum setbacks of 3 meters.
3. Buildings are limited to two floors but traditional three-story structures can be rebuilt. Local materials must be used where possible and traditional architectural styles promoted.
4. Adequate water supply, waste disposal, parking and other infrastructure must be arranged based on the scale of development
This document provides an overview of Chapter 5 from a general chemistry textbook. Chapter 5 covers reactions in aqueous solutions, including precipitation reactions, acid-base reactions, and oxidation-reduction reactions. It defines key concepts like electrolytes, precipitation, acids and bases. It also explains how to balance redox reactions and identify oxidizing and reducing agents. The chapter focuses on stoichiometry and titration reactions in aqueous solutions.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook titled "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications". It focuses on main group elements, specifically metals. The chapter covers Group 1 alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, and potassium. It also discusses Group 2 alkaline earth metals including beryllium, magnesium, calcium, and barium. Additional topics include ions in natural waters that cause hardness, Group 13 metals aluminum gallium and thallium, and Group 14 metals tin and lead.
This document summarizes Chapter 23 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses the main group elements in groups 13 through 18, including their properties, production, compounds and uses. It focuses on the nonmetal elements boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth. The chapter also examines the allotropes and oxides of these elements as well as environmental issues related to sulfur and phosphorus.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook. It discusses several main-group elements and their properties. The chapter is divided into sections covering Group 1 alkali metals like lithium and sodium, Group 2 alkaline earth metals like magnesium and calcium, water hardness and softening, Group 13 metals aluminum, gallium, indium and thallium, and Group 14 metals tin and lead. For each group of elements, their discoveries, physical properties, common compounds, and industrial uses are described.
This chapter discusses the properties and reactions of nonmetal main group elements. It covers the noble gases, halogens, oxygen family (sulfur and oxygen), nitrogen family (nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth), carbon, silicon, and boron. Key topics include physical and chemical properties, common compounds, production and uses, and environmental issues related to these elements and their compounds. The chapter aims to provide an overview of the rich chemistry of nonmetals without an in-depth discussion of any single element. It concludes by posing questions to help students develop problem-solving skills.
This document provides information on acid-base reactions and oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. It defines acids and bases, and explains that in acid-base reactions, acids donate protons to bases. Neutralization reactions between acids and bases produce water and a salt. The document also discusses how to determine oxidation states of elements in compounds and identify the oxidized and reduced substances in redox reactions. It provides steps for balancing redox equations, including dividing the reaction into partial equations and adding electrons to balance charges. Examples of assigning oxidation states and balancing redox reactions are included.
Oxidation reduction reactions By MUHAMMAD FAHAD ANSARI 12 IEEM 14fahadansari131
The document summarizes various electrochemical reactions including oxidation-reduction reactions. It discusses reactions that produce electrical energy spontaneously like in batteries and those that require electrical energy like electrolysis. Key points covered include the definitions of oxidation, reduction, and oxidizing/reducing agents. Examples of electrolysis and electroplating are provided. The roles of microbes in important redox processes like photosynthesis, aerobic respiration, nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, sulfate reduction, and methane formation are summarized.
IB Chemistry on Chemical Properties, Oxides and Chlorides of period 3Lawrence kok
The document summarizes periodic trends across period 3 from metals to nonmetals. It discusses how physical and chemical properties change, including bonding type and reactivity. Oxides and chlorides of elements in period 3 are specifically examined, noting how they may react with water through hydrolysis, producing acids or bases depending on the element. Some oxides like aluminum and silicon oxides are noted to not react with water directly but can react with acids or bases.
This document provides information about oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions. It defines oxidation as losing electrons and reduction as gaining electrons. It discusses oxidizing agents and reducing agents. Examples of oxidation and reduction in daily life are provided, such as corrosion and food rancidity. The document also explains how to determine oxidation states and balance redox reactions. An exercise with sample problems is given to help identify oxidation states.
1) A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, where the solute is present in smaller amounts than the solvent.
2) An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water, allows the solution to conduct electricity through the formation of ions, while a nonelectrolyte does not form ions and the solution cannot conduct electricity.
3) Titrations involve slowly adding a solution of known concentration to another solution of unknown concentration until the chemical reaction between them is complete, as indicated by an indicator, and can be used to determine concentrations in acid-base and redox reactions.
Oxidation reduction reactions BY Muhammad Fahad Ansari 12IEEM14fahadansari131
Electrochemistry involves oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions where electrons are exchanged between reactants. There are two types of redox reactions: those that produce electrical energy spontaneously and those that require electrical energy to occur. Spontaneous reactions include those in batteries that produce electricity. Non-spontaneous reactions require electricity and include electrolysis and electroplating. Redox reactions play important roles in many industrial and biological processes.
The document discusses acids and bases according to different theories including Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis concepts. It defines acids and bases, describes their properties, and explains neutralization reactions. Examples are provided of strong vs weak acids and bases as well as monoprotic, diprotic, and triprotic acids and bases based on their equivalent weights.
This document provides an overview of chemical equations and reactions. It discusses:
- Chemical equations, reactants, products, and how atoms rearrange during reactions.
- Balancing chemical equations by ensuring equal numbers of each atom on both sides.
- Information that can be obtained from a balanced chemical equation, such as moles of substances.
- Four main types of chemical reactions: combination, decomposition, displacement, and double displacement. Examples of each type are provided along with general reaction equations.
This document contains lecture notes on quantitative analysis in chemistry. It discusses gravimetric analysis, which determines the amount of a substance by converting it into a product that can be isolated and weighed. An example is given of determining the amount of lead in water by precipitating lead sulfate, filtering and weighing the precipitate. A practice problem demonstrates calculating the mass of lead from the mass of lead sulfate precipitate obtained.
This document provides information on stoichiometry, which involves using mole ratios from balanced chemical equations to calculate mass relationships between substances in a chemical reaction. It outlines the steps to solve stoichiometry problems, which include writing a balanced equation, identifying known and unknown quantities, setting up mole ratio conversion factors between moles of reactants and products, and checking the answer. Key concepts discussed include the mole ratio from coefficients in a balanced equation, molar mass to convert between moles and grams, and the molar volume used to calculate liters of gas at standard temperature and pressure.
This document provides an overview of redox reactions and electrochemistry applications. It discusses oxidation-reduction concepts like oxidation states and the OIL RIG mnemonic. Examples of redox reactions and electrochemistry applications are given, including galvanic cells, corrosion, electrolysis, and batteries. Key concepts covered include cell potential, the Nernst equation, and how concentration affects cell potential. Diagrams illustrate galvanic cells and how they function.
1) The document discusses classical ideas of oxidation and reduction reactions by defining them as addition or removal of oxygen, hydrogen, or electronegative/electropositive elements.
2) It then moves to discussing redox reactions in terms of electron transfer, defining oxidation as loss of electrons and reduction as gain of electrons.
3) Rules for calculating oxidation numbers are provided, including that the sum of oxidation numbers in a compound or ion must equal the overall charge. Stock notation is also introduced for representing oxidation states.
4) Examples are given of identifying oxidizing and reducing agents, balancing redox reactions using the oxidation number method, and classifying reactions as redox based on changes in oxidation numbers.
This document describes a classic scheme for qualitatively analyzing 21 common cations. It involves 8 preliminary tests including adding water, sodium hydroxide, ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulfide, sodium carbonate, sulfuric acid, and flame tests. The cations are separated into groups based on their reactions, such as forming insoluble sulfides with Group II cations and insoluble carbonates with Group IV cations. Together with the sulfide separation scheme, the preliminary tests can be used to identify all 21 cations.
Chemistry edexcel as unit 1 chapter 1 chemical quantities_v0.03Paul Hill
Here are the key steps and observations from the experiment:
- Weigh out 0.56g of iron powder, which is 0.01 moles
- Add to excess copper(II) sulfate solution
- A displacement reaction occurs, producing copper metal
- Filter, wash, dry the copper product
- Weigh the copper produced
- If equation 1 is correct, the mass of copper should be 0.63g (0.01 moles of Cu)
- However, the actual mass obtained is higher, indicating equation 2 is correct
- Equation 2 involves a change in oxidation state of iron from 0 to +3, a redox reaction
So in summary, the experiment shows the reaction involves a redo
This document outlines Chapter 27 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses organic chemistry, including topics such as organic compounds and structures, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes, aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, phenols, ethers, aldehydes and ketones, carboxylic acids and derivatives, amines, heterocyclic compounds, stereoisomers, substitution reactions, synthesis of organic compounds, and polymerization reactions. The chapter contains 75 slides with content including definitions, diagrams, reactions, and examples.
This chapter discusses complex ions and coordination compounds. It begins with an overview of Werner's theory, which proposed that metal atoms can bind ligands in the form of coordination compounds. The chapter then covers topics such as common ligands, nomenclature of complexes, isomerism, and bonding models like crystal field theory. It concludes with sections on color, acid-base properties, kinetics, and applications of coordination chemistry.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook titled "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter is titled "The Transition Metals" and covers various topics relating to the properties and applications of transition metals. It includes sections on the general properties of transition metals, principles of extractive metallurgy, the first row transition elements, the iron triad, groups 11 and 12 metals, and lanthanides. Diagrams are provided to illustrate concepts like zone refining and the blast furnace process.
This chapter of the textbook discusses electrochemistry concepts including:
- How electrode potentials and electrochemical cells are measured
- How standard electrode potentials are determined and used to predict spontaneity of reactions
- How the Nernst equation relates cell potential to concentration and allows calculation of potential for non-standard conditions
- Applications of concepts like batteries, corrosion, and electrolysis
This document summarizes Chapter 20 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses spontaneous change, entropy, free energy, and criteria for spontaneity. It defines key concepts like entropy, the second law of thermodynamics, standard free energy change, and how free energy relates to chemical equilibrium. The chapter also examines how these principles apply to temperature dependence of equilibrium constants and coupled chemical reactions.
This chapter of a general chemistry textbook covers nuclear chemistry, including:
1) Types of radioactive decay such as alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma ray emission.
2) Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes and their decay chains.
3) Nuclear reactions such as fission and fusion.
4) Applications of radioisotopes such as radiocarbon dating, medical imaging and treatment, tracers, and analytical techniques.
5) Topics on nuclear stability, fission vs fusion, nuclear reactors, radioactive waste disposal, and effects of radiation.
This chapter of the general chemistry textbook discusses solubility and complex ion equilibria. It covers topics such as the solubility product constant Ksp, the common ion effect, limitations of Ksp, criteria for precipitation, fractional precipitation, effects of pH on solubility, and equilibria involving complex ions. It also describes the process of qualitative cation analysis using selective precipitation of cations in different solubility groups.
This document provides an overview of Chapter 17 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications". The chapter covers acids and bases, including: the Arrhenius theory of acids and bases; the Brønsted-Lowry theory; the pH scale and self-ionization of water; strong and weak acids/bases; polyprotic acids; and the relationship between molecular structure and acid-base behavior. The chapter also discusses Lewis acids and bases and provides examples to illustrate acid-base concepts.
This document summarizes Chapter 16 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses chemical equilibrium, including the equilibrium constant expression, relationships involving equilibrium constants, and how equilibrium is affected by changing conditions. It provides examples of calculating equilibrium constants and predicting the direction of reaction based on the reaction quotient. Key topics covered are dynamic equilibrium, the equilibrium constant, Le Chatelier's principle, and equilibrium calculations.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook titled "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter is titled "Liquids, Solids and Intermolecular Forces" and covers topics such as the properties of liquids and solids, intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces, phase diagrams, crystal structures of solids, and energy changes during phase changes. It includes diagrams to illustrate concepts like vapor pressure curves, phase diagrams, and crystal unit cells.
This chapter discusses additional aspects of acid-base equilibria including:
1) The common-ion effect which describes how adding ions common to an equilibrium suppresses that equilibrium.
2) Buffer solutions which are mixtures of weak acids/bases and their conjugates that resist pH changes upon adding acids or bases.
3) Acid-base indicators whose color depends on pH and can thus indicate acid-base reactions.
4) Neutralization reactions and titration curves which plot pH versus titrant volume and can determine concentrations.
5) Solutions of salts of polyprotic acids which have multiple ionization steps and thus multiple pH ranges.
This chapter discusses additional aspects of chemical bonding theory including the valence bond method, hybridization of atomic orbitals, multiple bonds, molecular orbital theory, delocalized electrons in molecules like benzene, and bonding in metals and semiconductors. The chapter focuses on photoelectron spectroscopy and includes example problems applying concepts like valence bond descriptions of molecular geometry, hybridization to explain molecular shapes, and molecular orbital diagrams of diatomic molecules.
This document summarizes Chapter 10 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications". The chapter discusses the periodic table and atomic properties. It covers the periodic law, classification of elements as metals and nonmetals, sizes of atoms and ions, ionization energy, electron affinity, and periodic trends in properties like melting points. The chapter also examines magnetic properties and how the periodic table can be used to predict trends in chemical behavior.
This document summarizes Chapter 11 of a General Chemistry textbook. Chapter 11 discusses chemical bonding, including Lewis theory, ionic and covalent bonds, molecular geometry, bond order, bond energies, and exceptions to the octet rule. It also introduces polymers as macromolecular substances. The chapter contains examples of writing Lewis structures and determining formal charges and molecular geometry using VSEPR theory. Key questions at the end review these concepts.
This document is a PowerPoint presentation on Chapter 8 from the textbook "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications" by Petrucci, Harwood, and Herring. The chapter discusses the composition and importance of the atmospheric gases nitrogen, oxygen, noble gases, and hydrogen. It also covers the carbon and nitrogen cycles, as well as chemical processes involving these elements like the Haber-Bosch process and ozone depletion. The presentation concludes with sample questions related to the chapter material.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook titled "General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications". It is chapter 28 which discusses the chemistry of living systems. The chapter covers topics such as lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolism. It provides information on the structures and functions of these biomolecules and relates their roles in living organisms.
This document is a chapter from a general chemistry textbook about atoms and the atomic theory. It discusses early discoveries in chemistry that led to modern atomic theory, including Dalton's atomic theory. It also describes experiments that showed atoms are made of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons, including discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron. The chapter concludes by explaining isotopes, atomic numbers, mass numbers, and how the mole is used to relate mass to number of particles.
2. Contents
5-1 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions
5-2 Precipitation Reactions
5-3 Acid-Base Reactions
5-4 Oxidation-Reduction: Some General Principles
5-5 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations
5-6 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
5-7 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous
Solutions: Titrations
Focus on Water Treatment
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3. 5.1 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions
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4. Electrolytes
• Some solutes can
dissociate into ions.
• Electric charge can be
carried.
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5. Types of Electrolytes
• Strong electrolyte dissociates completely.
– Good electrical conduction.
• Weak electrolyte partially dissociates.
– Fair conductor of electricity.
• Non-electrolyte does not dissociate.
– Poor conductor of electricity.
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6. Representation of Electrolytes using
Chemical Equations
A strong electrolyte:
MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
A weak electrolyte:
CH3CO2H(aq) ← CH3CO2-(aq) + H+(aq)
→
A non-electrolyte:
CH3OH(aq)
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7. Notation for Concentration
MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl-(aq)
In 0.0050 M MgCl2:
Stoichiometry is important.
[Mg2+] = 0.0050 M [Cl-] = 0.0100 M [MgCl2] = 0 M
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8. Example 5-1
Calculating Ion concentrations in a Solution of a Strong
Electolyte.
What are the aluminum and sulfate ion concentrations in
0.0165 M Al2(SO4)3?.
Balanced Chemical Equation:
Al2(SO4)3 (s) → 2 Al3+(aq) + 3 SO42-(aq)
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12. Solubility Rules
• Compounds that are soluble:
– Alkali metal ion and ammonium ion salts
Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+ NH4+
– Nitrates, perchlorates and acetates
NO3- ClO4- CH3CO2-
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13. Solubility Rules
•Compounds that are mostly soluble:
– Chlorides, bromides and iodides Cl-, Br-, I-
• Except those of Pb2+, Ag+, and Hg22+.
– Sulfates SO42-
• Except those of Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+ and Hg22+.
• Ca(SO4) is slightly soluble.
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14. Solubility Rules
•Compounds that are insoluble:
– Hydroxides and sulfides HO-, S2-
• Except alkali metal and ammonium salts
• Sulfides of alkaline earths are soluble
• Hydroxides of Sr2+ and Ca2+ are slightly soluble.
– Carbonates and phosphates CO32-, PO43-
• Except alkali metal and ammonium salts
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15. 5-3 Acid-Base Reactions
• Latin acidus (sour)
– Sour taste
• Arabic al-qali (ashes of certain plants)
– Bitter taste
• Svante Arrhenius 1884 Acid-Base theory.
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16. Acids
• Acids provide H+ in aqueous solution.
• Strong acids:
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
• Weak acids:
CH3CO2H(aq) ←
→ H+(aq) + CH3CO2-(aq)
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17. Bases
• Bases provide OH- in aqueous solution.
• Strong bases:
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
H 2O
• Weak bases:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ←
→ OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq)
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18. Recognizing Acids and Bases.
• Acids have ionizable hydrogen ions.
– CH3CO2H or HC2H3O2
• Bases have OH- combined with a metal ion.
KOH
or are identified by chemical equations
Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l)→ HCO3-(aq) + 2 Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
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19. More Acid-Base Reactions
• Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2 H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2 CH3CO2H(aq) →
Mg2+(aq) + 2 CH3CO2-(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
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23. 5-4 Oxidation-Reduction: Some
General Principles
• Hematite is converted to iron in a blast furnace.
∆
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(l) + 3 CO2(g)
• Oxidation and reduction always occur together.
Fe3+ is reduced to metallic iron.
CO(g) is oxidized to carbon dioxide.
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24. Oxidation State Changes
• Assign oxidation states:
3+ 2- 2+ 2- 0 4+ 2-
∆
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) → 2 Fe(l) + 3 CO2(g)
Fe3+ is reduced to metallic iron.
CO(g) is oxidized to carbon dioxide.
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25. Oxidation and Reduction
• Oxidation
– O.S. of some element increases in the reaction.
– Electrons are on the right of the equation
• Reduction
– O.S. of some element decreases in the reaction.
– Electrons are on the left of the equation.
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26. Zinc in Copper Sulfate
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
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27. Half-Reactions
• Represent a reaction by two half-reactions.
Oxidation: Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-
Reduction: Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- → Cu(s)
Overall: Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
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28. Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations
• Few can be balanced by inspection.
• Systematic approach required.
• The Half-Reaction (Ion-Electron) Method
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29. Example 5-6
Balancing the Equation for a Redox Reaction in Acidic Solution.
The reaction described below is used to determine the sulfite ion
concentration present in wastewater from a papermaking plant.
Write the balanced equation for this reaction in acidic solution. .
SO32-(aq) + MnO4-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + Mn2+(aq)
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30. Example 5-6
Determine the oxidation states:
4+ 7+ 6+ 2+
SO32-(aq) + MnO4-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + Mn2+(aq)
Write the half-reactions:
SO32-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2 e-(aq)
5 e-(aq) +MnO4-(aq) → Mn2+(aq)
Balance atoms other than H and O:
Already balanced for elements.
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31. Example 5-6
Balance O by adding H2O:
H2O(l) + SO32-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2 e-(aq)
5 e-(aq) +MnO4-(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
Balance hydrogen by adding H+:
H2O(l) + SO32-(aq) → SO42-(aq) + 2 e-(aq) + 2 H+(aq)
8 H+(aq) + 5 e-(aq) +MnO4-(aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
Check that the charges are balanced: Add e- if necessary.
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32. Example 5-6
Multiply the half-reactions to balance all e-:
5 H2O(l) + 5 SO32-(aq) → 5 SO42-(aq) + 10 e-(aq) + 10 H+(aq)
16 H+(aq) + 10 e-(aq) + 2 MnO4-(aq) → 2 Mn2+(aq) + 8 H2O(l)
Add both equations and simplify:
5 SO32-(aq) + 2 MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq) →
5 SO42-(aq) + 2 Mn2+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)
Check the balance!
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33. Balancing in Acid
• Write the equations for the half-reactions.
– Balance all atoms except H and O.
– Balance oxygen using H2O.
– Balance hydrogen using H+.
– Balance charge using e-.
• Equalize the number of electrons.
• Add the half reactions.
• Check the balance.
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34. Balancing in Basic Solution
• OH- appears instead of H+.
• Treat the equation as if it were in acid.
– Then add OH- to each side to neutralize H+.
– Remove H2O appearing on both sides of
equation.
• Check the balance.
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35. 5-6 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents.
• An oxidizing agent (oxidant ):
– Contains an element whose oxidation state
decreases in a redox reaction
• A reducing agent (reductant):
– Contains an element whose oxidation state
increases in a redox reaction.
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37. Example 5-8
Identifying Oxidizing and Reducing Agents.
Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, is a versatile chemical. Its uses
include bleaching wood pulp and fabrics and substituting for
chlorine in water purification. One reason for its versatility is
that it can be either an oxidizing or a reducing agent. For the
following reactions, identify whether hydrogen peroxide is an
oxidizing or reducing agent.
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38. Example 5-8
H2O2(aq) + 2 Fe2+(aq) + 2 H+ → 2 H2O(l) + 2 Fe3+(aq)
Iron is oxidized and
peroxide is reduced.
5 H2O2(aq) + 2 MnO4-(aq) + 6 H+ →
8 H2O(l) + 2 Mn2+(aq) + 5 O2(g)
Manganese is reduced and
peroxide is oxidized.
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39. 5-7 Stoichiometry of Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions: Titrations.
• Titration
– Carefully controlled addition of one solution to
another.
• Equivalence Point
– Both reactants have reacted completely.
• Indicators
– Substances which change colour near an
equivalence point.
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41. Example 5-10
Standardizing a Solution for Use in Redox Titrations.
A piece of iron wire weighing 0.1568 g is converted to Fe2+(aq)
and requires 26.42 mL of a KMnO4(aq) solution for its titration.
What is the molarity of the KMnO4(aq)?
5 Fe2+(aq) + MnO4-(aq) + 8 H+(aq) →
4 H2O(l) + 5 Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq)
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42. Example 5-10
5 Fe2+(aq) + MnO4-(aq) + 8 H+(aq) → 4 H2O(l) + 5 Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq)
Determine KMnO4 consumed in the reaction:
1 mol Fe 1 mol Fe 2 +
nH 2O = 0.1568 g Fe × × ×
55.847 g Fe 1 mol Fe
−
1 mol MnO4 1 mol KMnO4
× −
= 5.615 × 10 − 4 mol KMnO4
5 mol Fe 2 + 1 mol MnO4
Determine the concentration:
5.615 × 10 −4 mol KMnO4
[ KMnO4 ] = = 0.02140 M KMnO4
0.02624 L
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Iron rusts Natural gas burns Represent chemical reactions by chemical equations. Relationship between reactants and products is STOICHIOMETRY Many reactions occur in solution-concentration uses the mole concept to describe solutions
A generalization is helpful: Essentially all soluble ionic compounds are strong electrolytes. Most molecular compounds are weak electrolytes or non-electrolytes
Strong – complete dissociation Weak – reversible
Strong acids completely ionize in solution Weak acids partially ionize in solution Compare to the electrolyte strengths.
Strong bases completely dissociate (or nearly so) Primarily hydroxides of group 1 and some group 2 metals Certain substances produce ions by reacting with water, not just dissolving in it. NH 4 is a weak base because the eaciton does not go to completion. MOST bases are weak bases
Ionizable protons are usually inidicated separately in a formula.
Equation 1 is reaction with strong acid Equation 2 is reaction with weak acid Note the characteristic formation of water.
This equation shows CO 3 2- acting as a base instead of OH-. Our definition must be expanded from simple Arrhenius theory (Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis)
Fe(2) is oxidized to Fe(3). Therefore peroxide is an oxidizing agent. Peroxide is reduced to water. Mn(7) is reduced to Mn(2). Therefore peroxide is a reducing agent. Peroxide is oxidized to molecular oxygenl.