The document discusses the anatomy and functions of the cerebral cortex and its lobes. It begins by outlining the learning objectives which are the cerebrum, cerebral cortex, hemispheres, external features, lobes and their functions and lesions. It then describes the development of the brain and its main parts. It provides detailed information on the structure and layers of the cerebral cortex, hemispheres, lobes, their functions and common lesions. It discusses various syndromes associated with lesions in different lobes. References used are also listed.
Students are required to know the detailed anatomy of the cortex and also the lesions and their presentation in patients.Medicine in itself derived from a thorough understanding of the anatomy in the initial years of MBBS.Thus it is an iminantory part of this slideshare.
Students are required to know the detailed anatomy of the cortex and also the lesions and their presentation in patients.Medicine in itself derived from a thorough understanding of the anatomy in the initial years of MBBS.Thus it is an iminantory part of this slideshare.
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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7. CEREBRUM
* Largest part of the human brain(fills the cranial cavity)
* Heavily convoluted bi lobed structure
* Situated in the Anterior & Mid cranial fossa of the skull
* Divided into 2 parts
Diencephalon (forms the central core)
Telencephalon (forms the cerebral hemisphere)
8. * Consists of two lateral halves - left and right cerebral
hemisphere
* Separated by Longitudinal cerebral fissure
* Cleft is complete – Ant & Post
* In central part –
cleft extends downward to corpus callosum (large
mass of white fibers joining 2 cerebral hemispheres)
9.
10. Cerebral cortex
Surface layer of grey matter covering cerebral hemisphere
Surface area of cerebral cortex – 2.2 sq.m
Has many folds called gyri
grooves in b/w folds called sulci
13. TYPES OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
NEOCORTEX ALLOCORTEX
Phylogenetically new structure of Cerebral
cortex
Phylogenetic ally oldest structure of Cerebral
cortex
Forms the major portion 90% Forms part of limbic system
Structurally Thick & consists of 6 layers
Also called as Isocortex/Neopallium
Consists of 3 layers
Divided into Archicortex & Paleocortex
15. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE
Each cerebral hemisphere consists of
a) an outer layer of grey matter cerebral cortex
b) an inner mass of white matter
c) large masses of grey matter embedded in basal part basal
ganglia/nuclei
d) A cavity within it lateral ventricle
16. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
HEMISPHERE
Right hemisphere
- Sensory stimulus and motor control from left side of the body.
-Non dominant hemisphere.
-Non verbal ideation.
-Spatial comprehension .
-Recognition of faces, places, objects.
-Creative act of arts & music.
-Context , perception.
17. Left hemisphere
- Sensory and motor control from right side of the body
-Dominant hemisphere
- Verbal ideation
-Speech
-Perception of language and comprehension
-Numerical skills
-Writing
-Recognition of words, letters, numbers
21. POLES
1. Frontal Pole – Ant.end of hemisphere is more rounded & lies opposite to
superciliary arch
2. Occipital Pole – Post.end of hemisphere is more pointed & lies at short distance
to ext.occipital protuberance
3. Temporal Pole – B/w frontal & occipital poles pointed forwards & fits into
ant.part of midcranial fossa
22.
23. SURFACES
1. Superolateral surface – most convex & extensive,faces upwards & laterally
2. Medial surface – flat & vertical, presents corpus callosum(thick C shaped cut
surface)
3. Inferior surface – irregular & divided into
- Orbital surface ( small ant.part )
- Tentorial surface ( large post.part )
27. SULCI
The sulci (or fissures) are the grooves and the gyri are the "bumps" that can
be seen on the surface of the brain. The folding created by the sulci and gyri
increases the amount of cerebral cortex that can fit in the skull.
1. Lateral Sulcus – b/w temporal & parietal lobe
2. Central Sulcus – b/w frontal & parietal lobe
3. Calcarine Sulcus – Caudal end of medial surface
4. Parieo-occipital Sulcus – b/w parietal & occipital
28. GYRUS
A gyrus is a ridge-like elevation found on the surface of the cerebral cortex. Gyri are surrounded
by depressions known as sulci, and together they form the iconic folded surface of the brain.
29.
30. *Cerebral cortex is demarcated into large no.of areas Which
differ from structure as well as function .
* Brodmann (1909) divided the cerebral cortex into 52 areas &
indicated each of them by number .
TYPES
1. Motor areas ( motor function )
2. Sensory areas ( sensory function )
3. Association areas ( integrative , cognitive function)
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF BRAIN
31. Areas 1, 2, 3 Primary somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus)
Area 4 Primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus)
Area 5 Somatosensory association cortex
Area 6
Area 8
Premotor and supplementary motor cortex
Area 9
Dorsolateral/anterior prefrontal cortex (motor
planning, and organization)
Area 10 Anterior prefrontal cortex (memory retrieval)
Area 17
Area 18
Primary visual cortex
Area 22 Primary auditory cortex
Area 37 Occipitotemporal (fusiform) gyrus
Areas 22, 39, 40 Wernicke's area (language comprehension)
Areas 44, 45 Broca's area (motor speech programming
32.
33. • Lies anterior to Central sulcus & above posterior
ramus of lateral sulcus
Functions
-Initiation of voluntary movement , intelligence,
problem solving, judgement, language, conjugate
movements of eyeball.
-plays higher mental function such as motivation,
planning, social behaviour and speech production.
FRONTAL LOBE
34. • Hemiplegia :- disease or injury to the motor centers of the brain.
• Broca’s Aphasia :- “EXPRESSIVE APHASIA” characterised by partial
loss of ability to produce language although comprehension remains
intact.
• Emotional instability
• Bilateral hemiparesis
• Apraxia
• Contralateral gaze paresis:- Inability to produce conjugate eye
movements in one or both directions.
• Apathy
LESION
35. • Lies behind the central sulcus & below bounded by posterior ramus of
lateral sulcus
Functions
- Cutaneous sensation , spatial recognition (2 point discrimination,
Tactile, localization,stereognosis)
- processing of sensory information, understanding spatial orientation
and body awareness.
PARIETAL LOBE
36. • Poverty of movement
• Visuospatial disorders :- IPSILATERAL GAZE PARESIS.(complete gaze
impairment)
• Apraxia :- Inability to perform a movement or task when asked despite having the
desire and physical capability to carry it out
• Loss of tactile localization
• Anosognosia :- deficit of self awareness.
LESION
37. PARIETAL LOBE SYNDROME
*Lesion involving primarily the right (non dominant) parietal cortex.
*impaired proprioception and some degree of mental confusion
*Sensory inattention may persist indefinitely
*Anosognosia
*Hemisomatopagnosia :- denies the very existence of paretic side .
38. • Lies below the posterior ramus of lateral sulcus &
separated from the occipital lobe
Functions
- Auditory perception
The temporal lobe is involved in primary auditory
perception, such as hearing, and holds the primary
auditory cortex (area 22). The primary auditory cortex
receives sensory information from the ears and secondary
areas
( rostally in the temporal lobe and contains broadmann
area 42) process the information into meaningful units
such as speech and words.
TEMPORAL LOBE
39. • Wernicke’s aphasia ( Deafness ):- sensory aphasia
• Visual agnosia :- impairment in recognition of visually presented objects.
• Right temporal damage:- loss of inhibition of talking.
• Left temporal damage :- impaired memory for verbal material.
Auditory ,visual , gustatory & olfactory hallucination.
Dreamy states.
LESIONS
40. TEMPORAL LOBE EPILEPSY
Complaints of unpleasant smelling odors, unpleasant taste
Lost ability to speak
Sense of depersonalization
Lip smaking and chewing movement,followed by generalized
seizure.
Experience dejavu
41. • Lies behind the vertical line joining parieto-occipital
sulcus & preoccipital notch
• Functions
- Visual perception
- The occipital lobe is the visual processing area of the brain.
It is associated with visuospatial processing, distance and
depth perception, colour determination, object and face
recognition, and memory formation.
OCCIPITAL LOBE
42. * Homonymous hemianopia( contralateral/left/right)
* Visual agnosia
* Blindness partial/complete
*Loss of perception of colour
LESIONS
43. CORTICAL BLINDNESS AND
ANTON’S SYNDROME
The inability to see because of bilateral injury
to the occipital lobe .
Brains ability to process visual information.
In rare condition cortical blindness patient
insist they can see and confabulate when asked
to describe objects in the environment –
Anton’s syndrome
44. FRONTOTEMPORAL DEMENTIA
Atrophy involving predominantly the frontal and temporal
cortices (and thus different from the distribution changes in
the alzhimer’s or lewy body dementia ).
Abnormal tau proteins can be identified in nerve cells and glia.
45. GERTMANN’S SYNDROME
Area of acute infraction in the region of the left posterior
temporal and parietal region
characteristic features are finger agnosia, left right
confusion, dysgraphia , dyscalculation.
46. BALINT’S SYNDROME
It is an uncommon disorder caused by bilateral injury to parietal
and occipital
cortices
Symptoms:- optic ataxia
inability to recognize more than one object in the
visual field.
inability to change the visual fixation.
dysmetria
47. * Textbook of Clinical Neuroanatomy – Vishram Singh,3rd Edition, chapter 12-
Cerebrum, pg.no.138-151
* Adams & Victor’s Principles of Neurology – Allan Ropper, Joshua Klein 10th edition,
chapter 22- Neurological lesions, pg.no.472-478
* Gray’s clinical Neuroanatomy – Eliot L.Mancall,David G Brock,2nd edition,pg.no 279-
312
*Clinical Neuroanatomy - Richard S.Snell,7th edition,chapter 7, pg.no.252-271
*BD Chaurasia’s Brain-Neuroanatomy – Volume 4,7th edition,chapter 4, pg.no 58-73
* Essentials of Medical Physiology- Sembulingam,6th edition,Section 10 Cerebral
cortex,pg.no.884-898
REFERENCES
