Central place theory proposes that settlements function as central places that provide goods and services to surrounding areas. The German geographer Walter Christaller developed the theory, asserting that settlements would form a hierarchical system based on the size, number, and spacing of central places. Later theorists like August Losch modified Christaller's rigid model to focus more on maximizing consumer welfare. While critiqued for its static nature, central place theory continues to provide insights into the hierarchy and functions of settlements as central places for goods and services.

1. Central place theory
Central place theory is a geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and
location of human settlements in an urban system.[1]
The theory was created by the German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that
settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing services to surrounding areas.[1]
Contents
 1 Building the theory
 2 Predictions of the theory
o 2.1 K = 3 Marketing principle
o 2.2 K = 4 Transport/Traffic principle
o 2.3 K = 7 Administrative principle
 3 Evaluation
 4 Examples
 5 Criticism
 6 Newer developments: a dynamic concept for CPT
 7 The importance of a City and other Theoretical Considerations
 8 Making Central Place Theory operational
o 8.1 Central Place Theory and Spatial Interaction Models
 9 See also
 10 Notes
 11 References
 12 External links
Building the theory[edit]
To develop the theory, Christaller made the following simplifying assumptions:[2]
All areas have
1. an unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)
2. an evenly distributed population
3. all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
4. evenly distributed resources
5. distance decay mechanism
6. perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
7. consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
8. all consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services
9. Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They minimize
the distance to be travelled
10. no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly over a
hinterland)
Therefore, the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal
size
1. there is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
2. transport cost is proportional to distance traveled in example, the longer the distance traveled, the higher
the transport cost
The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and range.
1. Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular
good or service.
2. Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods - at some point the
cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good.

2. The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center
will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can
be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements.
1. The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i.e. there are many small
villages, but few large cities.
2. The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i.e. villages are usually
found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart.
3. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase .
4. As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher-order services will also increase, i.e. a greater
degree of specialization occurs in the services.
The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the
goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them.
At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These
centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large.
Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries and post offices.
Examples for high order goods and services are: jewellery, large shopping arcades and malls. They are
supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.
Predictions of the theory[edit]
From this he deduced that settlements would tend to form in a triangular/hexagonal lattice, this being the most
efficient pattern to serve areas without any overlap.[1]
In the orderly arrangement of an urban hierarchy, seven different principal orders of settlement have been
identified by Christaller, providing different groups of goods and services. Settlement are regularly spaced -
equidistant spacing between same order centers, with larger centers farther apart than smaller centers.
Settlements have hexagonal market areas, and are most efficient in number and functions.
The different layouts predicted by Christaller have K-values which show how much the Sphere of Influence of
the central places takes in — the central place itself counts as 1 and each portion of a satellite counts as its
portion:
K = 3 Marketing principle[edit]
K = 3 Principle
According to the marketing principle K = 3, the market area of a higher-order place(node) occupies 1/3rd of the
market area of each of the consecutive lower size place(node) which lies on its neighbor; the lower size nodes(6
in numbers and 2nd larger circles) are located at the corner of a largest hexagon around the high -order
settlement. Each high-order settlement gets 1/3rd of each satellite settlement (which are 6 in total), thus K =
1 + 6×1/3 = 3.
However, although in this K = 3 marketing network the distance traveled is minimized, the transport network is
not the most efficient, because there is no intermediate transport links (network) between the larger places
(nodes).
K = 4 Transport/Traffic principle[edit]
K = 4 Principle
According to K = 4 transport principle, the market area of a higher-order place includes a half of the market area
of each of the six neighbouring lower-order places, as they are located on the edges of hexagons around the

3. high-order settlements. This generates a hierarchy of central places which results in the most efficient transport
network. There are maximum central places possible located on the main transport routes connecting the higher
order center.The transportation principle involves the minimization of the length of roads connecting central
places at all hierarchy levels. In this system of nesting, the lower order centres are all located along the roads
linking the higher order centres. This alignment of places along a road leads to minimization of road length.
However, for each higher order centre, there are nowfour centres of immediate lower order,as opposed to three
centres under the marketing principle.
K = 7 Administrative principle[edit]
K = 7 Principle
According to K = 7 administrative principle (or political-social principle), settlements are nested according to
sevens. The market areas of the smaller settlements are completely enclosed within the market area of the
larger settlement. Since tributary areas cannot be split administratively, they must be allocated exclusively to a
single higher-order place. Efficient administration is the control principle in this hierarchy.
Evaluation[edit]
The validity of the central place theory may vary with local factors, such as climate, topography, history of
development, technological improvement and personal preference of consumers and suppliers.
Economic status of consumers in an area is also important. Consumers of higher economic status tend to be
more mobile and therefore bypass centers providing only lower order goods. The application of central place
theory must be tempered by an awareness of such factors when planning shopping center space location.
Purchasing power and density affect the spacing of centers and hierarchical arrangements. Sufficient densities
will allow, for example, a grocery store, a lower order function, to survive in an isolated location.
Factors shaping the extent of market areas:
1. Land use: industrial areas can provide little in the way of a consuming population
2. Poor accessibility: this can limit the extent of a center's market area
3. Competition: this limits the extent of market areas in all directions
4. Technology: high mobility afforded by the automobile allows overlapping of market areas
Market area studies provide another technique for using central place theory as a retail location planning tool.
The hierarchy of shopping centers has been widely used within the planning of "new towns". In this new town,
the hierarchy of business centers is evident. One main shopping center provides mostly durable goods (higher
order); district and local shopping centers supply, increasingly, convenience (lower order) goods. These centers
provided for in the new town plan are not free from outside competition. The impacts of surrounding existing
centers on the new town centers cannot be ignored.
Examples
The newly reclaimed polders of the Netherlands provide an isotropic plane on which settlements have developed
and in certain areas 6 small towns can be seen surrounding a larger town, especially in the Noord -Oostpolder
and Flevoland. The Fens of East Anglia in the UK also provide a large expanse of flat land with no natural
barriers to settlement development. Cambridge is a good example of a K=4 Transport Model Central Place,
although it is surrounded by 7, rather than 6, settlements. Each satellite is 10–15 miles from Cambridge and
each lies on a major road leading out of Cambridge:
1. Ely - A10 north
2. Newmarket - A1303 (now bypassed by A14/A11) northeast
3. Haverhill - A1307 southeast
4. Saffron Walden - A1301 south
5. Royston - A10 southwest
6. St Neots - A428 west
7. St Ives - A14 northwest

4. As all of the satellite settlements are on transport links, this is a good example of a K=4 CPT model (although in
this case it is K=4.5 due to 7 rather than 6 settlements).
Another example of the use of CPT was in the delineation of Medical Care Regions in California. A hierarchy of
primary, secondary and tertiary care cities was described, and the population size and income needed to
support each medical care specialty in California determined.
Criticism
The Central Place Theory has been criticized for being static; it does not incorporate the temporal aspect in the
development of central places. Furthermore, the theory holds up well when it comes to agricultural areas, but not
industrial or postindustrial areas due to their diversified nature of various services or their varied distribution of
natural resources.
Newer developments: a dynamic concept for CPT[edit]
Newer theoretical developments have shown that it is possible to overcome the static aspect of CPT. Veneris
(1984) developed a theoretical model which starts with (a) a system of evenly distributed ("medieval") towns; (b)
new economic activities are located in some towns thus causing differentiation and evolution into an hierarchical
("industrial") city system; (c) further differentiation leads into a post-hierarchical ("postindustrial") city system.
This evolution can be modelled by means of the three major CPT theories: stage (a) is a system of vo n Thunen
"isolated states"; stage (b) is a Christallerian hierarchical system; stage (c) is a Löschian post-hierarchical
system. Furthermore, stage (b) corresponds to Chris Alexander's "tree" city, while (c) is similar to his "lattice"
system (following his dictum "the city is not a tree").
The importance of a City and other Theoretical Considerations[edit]
According to Smith, Walter Christaller erred in his development of CPT in 1930 by using size of population and
number of telephones in determining the importance of a city.
Smith recognized that although population size was important to the area served by a city, the number of kinds
of services offered there was more important as a measure of the importance of a city in attracting consumers.
In applying CPT to describe the delivery of medical care in California, Smith counted the number of physician
specialties to determine the importance of a city in the delivery of medical care.
Christaller also erred in the assumption that cities "emerge". In California and much of the United States, many
cities were situated by the railroads at the time the tracks were laid.
In California, towns founded by the railroads were 12 miles apart, the amount of track a section crew could
maintain in the 1850s; larger towns were 60 miles apart, the distance a steam engine could travel before
needing water. Older towns were founded a day's horse ride apart by the Spanish priests who founded early
missions.
In medical care regions described by Smith, there is a hierarchy of services, with primary care ideally distributed
throughout an area, middle sized cities offering secondary care, and metropolitan areas with tertiary care.
Income, size of population, population demographics, distance to the next service center, all had an inf luence on
the number and kind of specialists located in a population center. (Smith, 1977, 1979)
For example, orthopedic surgeons are found in ski areas, obstetricians in the suburbs, and boutique specialties
such as hypnosis, plastic surgery, psychiatry are more likely to be found in high income areas. It was possible to
estimate the size of population (threshold) needed to support a specialty, and also to link specialties that needed
to cooperate and locate near each other, such as hematology, oncology, and pathology, or cardiology, thoracic
surgery and pulmonology.
Her work is important for the study of physician location—where physicians choose to practice and where their
practices will have a sufficient population size to support them. The income level of the population determines
whether sufficient physicians will practice in an area and whether public subsidy is needed to maintain the health
of the population.
The distribution of medical care in California followed patterns having to do with the settlement of cities. Cities
and their hinterlands having characteristics of the Traffic Principle (See K=4 above) usually have six
thoroughfares through them—the thoroughfares including highways, rivers, railroads, and canals. They are most
efficient and can deliver the lowest cost services because transportation is cheaper. Those having settled on the
market principle (K=3 above) have more expensive services and goods, as they were founded at times when
transportation was more primitive. In Appalachia, for example, the market principle still prevails and rural medical
care is much more expensive.

5. Making Central Place Theory operational
CPT is often criticized as being "unrealistic". However, several studies show that it can describe existing urban
systems. An important issue is that Christaller's original formulation is incorrect in several ways (Smith). These
errors become apparent if we try to make CPT "operational", that is if we try to derive numerical data out of the
theoretical schemata. These problems have been identified for by Veneris (1984) and subsequently by
Openshaw and Veneris (2003), who provided also theoretically sound and consistent solutions, based on a K=3,
37-centre CP system:
1. Closure problem. Christaller's original scheme implies an infinite landscape. Although each market has finite
size, the total system has no boundaries to it. Neither Christaller, nor the early related literature provide any
guidance as to how the system can be "contained". Openshawand Veneris (2003) identified three different
types of closure, namely (a) isolated state, (b) territorial closure and (c) functional closure. Each closure type
implies different population patterns.
2. Generating trips. Following the basic Christallerian logic and the closure types identified, Openshaw and
Veneris (2003) calculate trip patterns between the 27 centres.
3. Calculating inter- and intra-zonal costs/distances. Christaller assumed freedom of movement in all directions,
which would imply "airline" distances between centres. At the same time, he provided specific road networks for
the CP system, which do not allow for airline distances. This is a major flaw which neither Christaller, nor early
related literature have identified. Openshawand Veneris (2003) calculate costs/distances which are consistent
with the Christallerian principles.
Central Place Theory and Spatial Interaction Models[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Spatial Interaction Models.
It was once thought that central place theory is not compatible with spatial interaction models (SIM). It is
paradoxical however that some times towns or shopping centres are planned with CPT, and subsequently
evaluated with SIM.
Openshaw and Veneris (2003) succeeded in linking these two major regional theories in a clear and theoretically
consistent way: using the data they derived from the operationalization of CPT, they experimented with several
SIM. Following a thorough investigation via computer simulation, they reached important theoretical and
practical conclusions.
Smith was able to delineate medical care regions (the range), describe the hierarchy of medical services, the
population base required of each medical specialty (threshold), the efficiency of regions, and the importance of
how an area was settled to the delivery of medical care, that is, according to traffic, market or administrative
principles.
Losch’s Central Place Theory
In 1954, German economist August Losch modified Christaller's central place theory because he
believed it was too rigid. He thought that Christaller's model led to patterns where the distribution of
goods and the accumulation of profits were based entirely on location.
He instead focused on maximizing consumer welfare and creating an ideal consumer landscape where
the need to travel for any good was minimized and profits were held level, not maximized to accrue
extra.
Central Place Theory Today
Though Losch's central place theory looks at the ideal environment for the consumer, both his and
Christaller's ideas are essential to studying the location of retail in urban areas today.
Often, small hamlets in rural areas do act as the central place for various small settlements because
they are where people travel to buy their everyday goods. However, when they need to buy higher
value goods such as cars and computers, they have to travel into the larger town or city -- which
serves not only their small settlement but those around them as well.
This model is shown all over the world, from rural areas of England to the United States' Midwest or
Alaska with the many small communities that are served by larger towns, cities, and regional capitals.

6. See also[edit]
 Demographic gravitation
 Fractal
 Penrose tiling
 Zipf's law
 Boundary problem (in spatial analysis)
 Unified settlement planning
Notes[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b c Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.
2. Jump up^ http://uprav.ff.cuni.cz/?q=system/files/christaller.pdf
References[edit]
 Openshaw S, Veneris Y, 2003, "Numerical experiments with central place theory and spatial interaction
modelling" Environment and Planning A 35(8) 1389–1403 ([1])
 Smith, Margot W. Physician's Specialties and Medical Trade Areas: An Application of Central Place Theory.
Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences, Vol. 9, West Point NY 1986.
 Smith, Margot W. A Guide to the Delineation of Medical Care Regions, Medical Trade Areas and Hospital
Service Areas. Public Health Reports, 94:3:247 May 1979
 Smith, Margot W. The Economics of Physician Location, Western Regional Conference, American
Association of Geographers, Chicago, Illinois, 1979
 Smith, Margot W. The Distribution of Medical Care in Central California: a Social and Economic Analysis,
Thesis, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, 1977 - 1004 pages
 Veneris, Y, 1984, Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis, University of
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
External links[edit]
 Walter Christaller's Theory of Central Places
 Walter Christaller: Hierarchical Patterns of Urbanization
 Christaller's Central Place Theory
 Christaller - Course notes
 Central Places Theory
Categories:
Walter Christaller: Hierarchical Patterns of Urbanization
By Pragya Agarwal
Back to Classics
Background The size distribution of urban locations has been a significant question in urban science.
Walter Christaller, a German geographer, originally proposed the Central Place Theory (CPT)
in 1933 (trans. 1966). Christaller was studying the urban settlements in Southern Germany
and advanced this theory as a means of understanding how urban settlements evolve and are
spaced out in relation to each other. The question Christaller posed in his landmark book was
"Are there rules that determine the size, number and distribution of towns?" He attempted to
answer this question through a theory of central places that incorporated nodes and links in an
idealistic situation.
The model in CPT is explained using geometric shapes, such as hexagons and triangles.
Similar to other location theories by Weber and Von Thunen, the locations are assumed to be
located in a Euclidean, isotropic plane with similar purchasing power in all directions. The
assumption of universality in the transport network was also established and all parts of the
plain were served by the central place. A Central Place is a settlement or a nodal point that
serves the area around with goods and services (Mayhew, 1997). Christaller's model also was
based on the premise that all goods and services were purchased by consumers from the

7. nearest central place, that the demands placed on all central places in the plain were similar,
and that none of the central places made any excessive profit.
Innovation Christaller's CPT was evolved from the concept of centralization as an ordering principle.
Chirstaller proposed that if the centralization of mass around a nucleus is an elementary form
of order, then the same centralistic principle can be equated in urban settlements. The
Christaller model proposed a hierarchical arrangement of settlements and conceptualized the
model with hexagonal arrangements. The hexagon best equated a circle for maximum
coverage and some of the problems of overlap within circular arrangements were removed
from hexagonal arrangements. The population size and importance of a settlement were not
necessarily synonymous, but the centrality of the place was conceptualized in terms of its
importance in the region around it.
The theory consisted of the basic concepts of centrality, threshold, and range.Centrality is the
draw to a particular place. The threshold is the minimum market that is needed to bring a new
firm or service provider or city into existence and keep it running, and range is the average
minimum distance that people will travel to buy these services or goods. This is the marketing
principle in Christaller's model. The variations in Christaller's central place theory were based
on transportation (mid-point) and administration (strong centralization and central market).
The marketing principle is better known as the k=3 system, where a hexagonal space is
envisaged with the central places serving two lower-order places each or one-third of the
lower-order neighbors surrounding them. So, including the central place itself, a total of three
places are served. The goal in the marketing principle was to serve a maximum number of
consumers from a minimum number of centers. The hierarchy in the marketing model follows
the rule of 3s (1, 3, 9, 27, 81 . . .), where a consumer equidistant from three higher order
places A1, A2 and A3 would purchase 1/3 from A1, 1/3 from A2 and 1/3 from A3. In
the transportation model, the goal was to minimize the network length and maximize the
connectivity of centers being served. To minimize transportation costs, a different model of
k=4 is proposed, where the hexagon is shifted so that the settlements are located at the
center point of each side, and each central place serves a half-share of the surrounding
hexagon; thus, the number of places served is four. In the administrative model, the goal
was to provide a hierarchy of controls where the lower level centers are completely
controlled/administered by the higher order places. The administrative model is where k=7,
and all the six lower-order places in the hexagon are served by the central place. Christaller
envisaged these models as hierarchical, with all higher order places in the hexagon
surrounded by other higher-order places to explain not only local but regional economics and
spatialization of urban centers.
Extensions and modifications to Christaller's CPT have been proposed. The foremost
contribution was from August Losch, a German Economist, who proposed in the 1940s a
consumer model based on administrative and manufacturing structure as opposed to service
centres in Christaller's model. Losch started from the "bottom" of the model by considering
one "equivalent customer" or one unit of consumption and build up from there. In the Losch
model, the ten smallest market areas, each with a different k-value are plotted with each
network surrounding a central place. These networks were then laid over each other and
positioned to produce the largest number of places for each k-value. This model produced
wedges of city-rich and city-poor areas spread out around a major central place. Examples of
this for Toledo and Indiannapolis are shown in Figure 2, below.
Despite the inapplicability of the model in realistic situations, CPT was a breakthrough in
predicting and understanding the hierarchical development of settlements, where each level of
the hierarchy provides different and distinctive services. This hierarchical arrangement has
been applied in regional and urban economies, in describing the location of trade and service
activity, and for describing consumer market- oriented manufacturing. This hierarchical
arrangement also results in a distinctive social network as the economic activities and
movement of people are modified according to the hierarchical level of services provided. CPT
has acted as a foundation for a large body of work on "systems of cities." The best analogy
has been made to the planetary system, where individual units are kept in place by
gravitational forces between them (Heilbrun, 1987). Similarly, the CPT attempts to show that
each urban settlement is held in place within a system of cities and any changes in these are
determined by a place's position within the system (Heilbrun, 1987).

8. Publications Christaller, Walter. Die zentralen Orte in Suddeutschland. Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1933.
(Translated (in part), by Charlisle W. Baskin, as Central Places in Southern Germany. Prentice
Hall, 1966.
Christaller, Walter, How I discovered the Theory of Central Places: A Report about the Origin
of Central Places. in: English, P. W. and R. C. Mayfield, eds.,Man Space and Environment.
Oxford Univ. Press, 1972, pp.601–610.
Related Works Berry, Brian J. L. and Chauncy D. Harris, Walter Christaller: An Appreciation,Geographical
Review LX (1), 1970, pp.116–9.
Heilbrun, James. Urban Economics and Public Policy, 3rd Edition. New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1987
Von Boventer, Edwin. Walter Christaller's Central Places and Peripheral Areas: The Central
Place Theory in Retrospect, Journal of Regional Science. Vol.9, 1969, 117–24.
Preston, R. E., The Dynamic Component of Christaller's Central Place Theory and the Theme
of Change in his Research, The Canadian Geographer, vol.27, 1983, pp.4–16.
Losch, August, The Nature of Economic Regions, Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1,
July 1938, pp. 71–78.
Links
Lecture slides of Dr. J. Osleeb, City University of New York

9. Unified settlement planning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Unified settlement planning (USP) is the component of regional planning where a unified approach is applied
for a region's overall development. The USP approach is most often associated with urban planning practices
in India.
Contents
[hide]
 1 Overview
 2 History
 3 Recent developments
 4 Principles
 5 See also
 6 References
 7 Further reading
 8 External links
Overview[edit]
Regions use their land in for various purposes, including agriculture, manufacturing, and public administration.
For society to develop, it has to amalgamate and develop settlements; their coexistence is the basis for a holistic
development of any society.
The original "Garden City" concept by Ebenezer Howard, 1902.
Unified settlement planning is a contemporary approach for the bulk requirement of urban amenities, for the vast
regions of thedeveloping countries with uniformly distributed human settlement patterns. The approach is
gaining importance in India, primarily due to the difficulties posed by the high density of existing rural
settlements, in implementing the conventional plans with contiguous urban zones, around pre-existing cities.
The approach utilizes the advantages of the uniformly distributed human settlement patterns and avoids the
difficulties caused by the dense network of roads and villages, all over the regions. Unified settlement planning
allows holistic regional development without significantly disturbing existing villages, farmland, bodies of water,
and forests.[1]
History[edit]

10. The Walter Christaller concept
Sir Ebenezer Howard (29 January 1850[2]
– May 1, 1928[3]
) is known for his publication Garden Cities of To-
morrow (1898), the description of a utopian city in which people live harmoniously together with nature, which
forms the basis for unified settlement planning. The publication resulted in the founding of the garden city
movement, that realized several Garden Cities in Great Britain at the beginning of the 20th century.
Walter Christaller (April 21, 1893 – March 9, 1969) who was a German geographer, developed the idea
of Central Place Theory. It stated that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing services to
surrounding areas.[4]
August Lösch (October 15, 1906 in Öhringen-) a German economist, is regarded as the founder of Regional
Science .[5][better source needed]
August Lösch expanded on Christaller’s work in his book 'The Spatial Organization of the
Economy'(1940). Unlike Christaller, whose system of central places began with the highest-order, Lösch began
with a system of lowest-order (self-sufficient) farms, which were regularly distributed in a triangular-hexagonal
pattern.[6]
He thought that Christaller's model led to patterns where the distribution of goods and the
accumulation of profits were based entirely on location. He instead focused on maximizing consumer welfare
and creating an ideal consumer landscape where the need to travel for any good was minimized and profits
were held level, not maximized to accrue extra.[7]
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi visioned for a free country governed by their own people;he penned down his
visions in a book Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule in 1909.[8]
Swaraj stated that every village should be its own
republic, "independent of its neighbours for its own vital wants and yet interdependent for many others in which
dependence is necessary". A decentralized, unexploited, co-operative, self-reliant and peace-loving
development of a region is must for development of India.[9]
These ideas of swaraj was developed in light of contemporary scenario in India as Providing Urban Amenities to
Rural Areas (PURA), envisioned by former president of India and an eminent scientist Dr A. P. J. Abdul
Kalam and framed by Prof. Emerson.
PURA proposes that urban infrastructure and services be provided in rural hubs to create economic
opportunities outside of cities. These ideas will be possible through physical connectivity by providing roads,
electronic connectivity by providing communication network and knowledge connectivity by establishing
professional and Technical institutions. The mentioned programs will have to be done in an integrated way so
that economic connectivity will emanate. The Indian central government has been running pilot PURA programs
in several states since 2004.[10]
The Regional Module of Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh, India
Recent developments[edit]

11. The regional modules in Chhattisgarh(India)
The regional modules in Madhya Pradesh(India)
Chhattisgarh, one of the fastest growing states of India, has initiated deliberations on the subject, for its
development strategies. The process has started with some useful studies and research on the area by Dr.
Devendra K. Sharma.[11]
Based on a comprehensive scheme on the Unified settlement Plan for India (USP for India), targeted to serve
the whole nation in future, the Chhattisgarh government is contemplating a project for the holistic development of
a regional module of about 700 km2
. area, enclosed between the highways connecting Durg, Ragnandgaon &
Khairagarh.[12]
Institute of Town Planners, India (ITPI) organised a national seminar on the subject of Urban Dynamics and
Planning - 2032, on 18 & 19 April 2012. The seminar has strongly recommended that the development of rural
and urban settlements in India should not be planned separately.[13]
Principles[edit]
The fundamental objective for a unified settlement plan includes:[14]
 Low cost of living with basic requirements.
 Ample work opportunities, near the residences .
 Viability of institutions along with ample options for the clientele.
 Efficiency of the infrastructure, without any prejudice to the density of the settlements.
 Fool-proof security, especially for the areas with large population concentration.
 Each region to be self-reliant and interdependent wherever necessary.
The strategies for achieving the objectives include:[13]
 Definition of the regional modules.
 Minimizing the expenditure on land for urban amenities.
 Avoiding expenditure on the new residences for the population with existing houses.
 Development of efficient and economical transportation systems from origin to destination.
 Comparable generation and utilisation of energy in the module.

12.  Self-sufficiency in water utilization .
 Cooperative ownership of the urban land and its key facilities.
Name Types of urban nodes
Provision
for
residence
Implementation strategy
Garden Cities of To-
morrow(Ebenezer
Howard)
Similar nodes surrounding a
central hub
yes
Projects implemented without specific
implementation strategy
Central Place
Theory (Walter
Christaller)
Special emphasis on hierarchy of
nodes from higher to lower order
yes no specific implementation strategy
Central Place
Theory(review) (August
Lösch)
Similar hierarchy applied but
starting from lower order to
higher order
yes no specific implementation strategy
Providing Urban
Amenities to Rural
Areas (PURA)
One nodal ring with all
amenities repeated in every
module
no no specific implementation strategy
Unified settlement plan
for India (USP for
India)
Specific category micro urban
nodes for Industries, Institutions
and Agro infrastructure
surrounding a Central Hub
no
Special emphasis on implementation strategy
with initial phase public transportation
network and later phase for development of
micro urban nodes around the junction
See also[edit]
 Central place theory
 Transport planning
 Rural–urban fringe
 Regional planning
 Spatial planning
 Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas (PURA)
References[edit]
1. Jump up^ ISPC, . "uspforindia". architect and planner. www.godaddy.com. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
2. Jump up^ Penguin Pocket On This Day. Penguin Reference Library. 2006. ISBN 0-14-102715-0.
3. Jump up^ (1933) Enciklopedio de Esperanto
4. Jump up^ Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.
5. Jump up^ Losch, August. "August Lösch". wikipedia. Retrieved 7 June 2012.
6. Jump up^ losch, August. "August Lösch". brittanica. Retrieved 7 June 2012.
7. Jump up^ losch, August. "The gravity model" (PDF). Retrieved 7 June 2012.
8. Jump up^ Gandhi, Mohandas K. (1908). Hind Swaraj. Navajivan Publishing House. ISBN 81-7229-070-5.
9. Jump up^ . Verma, S. L (1990). Panchayati raj, gram swaraj, and federal polity. the University of Michigan: Rawat
Publications. p. 1. ISBN 8170330890.
10. Jump up^ KALAM, A.P.J. ABDUL. "Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas". scientist and former president.
Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
11. Jump up^ Sharma, Dr. Devendra K. The Uncut Diamond (PDF). Chhatisgarh: Satpura Integrated Rural
Development Institute. pp. 1–20.

13. 12. Jump up^ Samvadata, Nagar (16 March 2012). "Village Metro ka blue print taiyar". Navbharat, Durg Bhilai: 1&2.
Retrieved 28 April 2012.
13. ^ Jump up to:a b Seminar, National (2012). Urban Dynamics and Planning. Lucknow: Institute of Town Planners.
pp. 1–195.
14. Jump up^ pallot, judith (1981). planning for soviet union. british library. pp. the whole book. ISBN 0-85664-571-0.
Further reading[edit]
 Peter Calthorpe & William Fulton, The Regional City: Planning for the End of Sprawl, ISBN 1-55963-784-6
 Planning for Soviet Union, Judith pallot & Denis J.B. Shaw, 1981, ISBN 0-85664-571-0
 Openshaw S, Veneris Y, 2003, "Numerical experiments with central place theory and spatial interaction
modelling" Environment and Planning A 35(8) 1389–1403 ([1])
 Veneris, Y, 1984, Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modelling, PhD Thesis, University of
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
 Smith, Margot W. Physician's Specialties and Medical Trade Areas: An Application of Central Place Theory.
Papers and Proceedings of Applied Geography Conferences, Vol. 9, West Point NY 1986.
External links[edit]
 www.uspforindia.com
 www.uspforindia.org
 Countryside Agency of England's online research library of urban rural fringe
 'Case Studies' of the Urban Rural fringe for students
Categories:
 Proposed infrastructure in India
ProvidingUrban Amenities to Rural Areas
Provision of Urban Amenities to Rural Areas (PURA) is a strategy for rural development in India. This
concept was given by former president Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and discussed in his book Target 3 Billion which
he co-authored with Srijan Pal Singh.
The genesis of PURA concept can be traced to the work done by Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute in
early 1990s on Taluka energy self-sufficiency.[1]
It was shown in the study that energy self-sufficient talukas
can be a new development model for rural India in terms of creation of jobs and better amenities to its
population.[2]
PURA proposes that urban infrastructure and services be provided in rural hubs to create economic
opportunities outside of cities. Physical connectivity by providing roads, electronic connectivity by providing
communication network, and knowledge connectivity by establishing professional and Technical institutions will
have to be done in an integrated way so that economic connectivity will emanate. The Indian central government
has been running pilot PURA programs in several states since 2004.
Contents
 1 Introduction
 2 Background
 3 Mission
 4 Vision
 5 Strategy
o 5.1 Public–private partnership (PPP)
o 5.2 Pilot-testing and up-scaling
 6 Planning
 7 Identification of infrastructure needs and urban amenities
 8 Business model
o 8.1 Funding
 8.1.1 MORD schemes
 8.1.2 Non-MORD schemes
 8.1.3 Private funding
 9 Current status of PURA
o 9.1 Failure of PURA

14. o 9.2 Extension to 2000 new towns
o 9.3 Under payment of wages MGNREGA scheme
 10 See also
 11 References
 12 External links
Introduction[edit]
To make the basic amenities like good roads and drinking water accessible to people even in remo te villages,
The Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), Government of Indiahas re-launched the scheme Provision of
Urban Amenities in Rural Areas (PURA) as a Central Government scheme during the remaining period of the
eleventh five-year plan. MoRD, with support from Department of Economic Affairs and the Asian Development
Bank (which provided the technical assistance), intends to implement the PURA scheme under a Public Private
Partnership (PPP) between Local executive bodies like the Gram Panchayat(s) and private sector partners.
The vision of the scheme in particular is providing dual benefits like rural infrastructure development coupled
with economic re-generation activities; it is the first attempt of the government in this direction of delivering basic
amenities and infrastructure through this model to people in remote rural areas.
All the efforts are directed to obtain dual benefits, provide a different framework for the efficient implementation
of rural infrastructure development schemes and benefit from the private sector efficiencies in the management
of assets and delivery of services.
Background[edit]
After India gained its independence, despite of a plethora of welfare schemes and activities aimed at rural areas
in successive five year plans, a skewed development model increasing the disparities between the rural and the
urban areas has proliferated.
Lack of livelihood opportunities, modern amenities and services for decent living in rural areas lead to migration
of people to urban areas. There are wide gaps in the availability of physical and social infrastructure between
rural and urban areas. To address these issues, the President of India A.P.J. Abdul Kalam highlighted a vision of
transformation of rural India by launching a large-scale mission for Provision of Urban Amenities in Rural Areas
(PURA).
On the eve of India’s 54th Republic Day, in 2003, Dr. Kalam addressed the nation explaining them his vision for
a new India. He visualised providing four elements of connectivity: physical connectivity, electronic con nectivity,
knowledge connectivity leading to economic connectivity of rural areas and where there would be a lesser
urban-rural divide. PURA was envisaged as a self-sustainable and viable model of service delivery to be
managed through an implementation framework between the different stakeholders involved, namely local
people, public authorities and the private sector.
The Government support would be in the form of finding the right type of management structure to develop and
maintain rural infrastructure, empowering the management structure and providing initial economic support.
Subsequently, the Prime Minister of India also announced implementation of a PURA scheme in his
Independence Day speech on 15 August 2003.
Mission[edit]
"Holistic and accelerated development of compact areas around a potential growth centre in a Gram
Panchayat (or a group of Gram Panchayats) through Public Private Partnership (PPP) framework for providing
livelihood opportunities and urban amenities to improve the quality of life in rural areas"[3]
Vision[edit]
The vision of transformation to a 'developed' India can only be realised if we launch a mega mission for
empowering the rural people. Creation of Physical, electronic and knowledge connectivities leading to economic
connectivity in villages. Such a model of establishing a circular connectivity among the rural village complexes
will accelerate rural development process by empowerment.
Strategy[edit]
Public–private partnership (PPP)[edit]
The Mission & Vision of PURA is to bring together the experience & expertise of both public & private players to
achieve the objectives which are proposed to be achieved under the framework of PPP between Gram

15. Panchayats and private sector partner. Core funding shall be sourced from the Central Sector scheme of PURA
and complemented by additional support through convergence of different Central Government schemes. The
private sector shall also bring on board it’s share of investment besides operational expertise. The scheme
would be implemented and managed by the private sector on considerations of economic viability but designed
in a manner whereby it is fully aligned with the overall objective of rural development. To attract the private
sector, there is a need to design the scheme that would be 'project based' with well defined risks, identified
measures for risk mitigation and risks sharing among the sponsoring authority (Gram Panchayat), Government
of India, State Government and the Private Partners
Pilot-testing and up-scaling[edit]
Seven pilot projects were implemented during the 10th Five Year Plan in Basmath (Maharashtra), Bharthana
(Uttar Pradesh), Gohpur (Assam), Kujanga (Orissa), Motipur (Bihar), Rayadurg (Andhra Pradesh) and Shahpura
(Rajasthan). An evaluation study of these pilot projects was carried out by (NIRD) National Institute of Rural
Developmentwhich identified the necessity of community and private sector participation as essential factors and
the need for factoring infrastructure development with lead economic activities and livelihoods creation,
requirement of project site selection on the basis of growth potential and need for convergence with other
schemes of the government. Based on the findings of the evaluation study by NIRD, Comments, Feedback
received from different stakeholders like various Ministries/Departments, feedback received during co nsultations
with private sector representatives and officials of State Governments, and the recommendations of the
consulting team of Asian Development Bank), the scheme of PURA has been restructured for implementation on
pilot basis during 11th Five Year Plan[4]
as a Central Sector scheme Through the implementation of proposed
pilot projects at different places of INDIA different from each other, the unique features of this scheme would be
tested on the ground that will provide lessons for upscaling in the future and extending PURA throughou t the
country.Besides, the entire process shall help strengthen the institutional ability of a Gram Panchayat to
undertake PPP and help pilot-test the viability of PPPs in rural infrastructure development.
Planning[edit]
For a Scheme of this magnitude and importance and the impact it could have in the future and change the very
face of Rural Areas in a developing country like India, Proper back ground research and planning has to be
undertaken for the success of this project.
The Private Partner selected after properly analysing his financial and operational abilities to undertake PURA
projects shall identify a Gram Panchayat, a cluster of geographically contiguous Gram Panchayats for a
population of about 25,000– 40,000.
Whereas, the cluster would be the project area, there may be sub-projects to cover each of the Panchayats
within the cluster. Alternatively, a large single Panchayat could individually provide critical mass to make the
project viable.
In the pilot phase, the Private Partner is given the flexibility to identify and select the Gram Panchayat(s) for
undertaking PURA projects based on their familiarity with the area or past experience of working at the
grassroots level.
In this identified PURA area, the Private Partner shall plan for the development/re-development of selected
infrastructure services along with economic activities, after undertaking baseline studies
Identification of infrastructure needs and urban amenities[edit]
The different Amenities & activities can be divided into three types: 1)Amenities/Activities to be provided under
MoRD Ministry of Rural Development) Schemes (Mandatory), 2) Amenities to be provided under Schemes of
other Ministries (non-MoRD Schemes), 3) Add-on Projects (Revenue earning, people centric projects).[5]
MoRD Schemes Non-MoRD Schemes Add-on Projects
Water and Sewerage Village Street Lighting Village linked tourism
Construction and maintenance of
Village Streets
Telecom IntegratedRural Hub, Rural Market.
Drainage Electricity generation
Agri – Common Services Centre and
Warehousing.
Solid Waste Management Any other rural – economy based project.
Skill Development & Economical ability

16. Business model[edit]
The essence of the PURA scheme is to have the best of both the worlds Private & Public, The leveraging of
public funds with private capital and management expertise for creation and maintenance of rural infrastructure.
Funding[edit]
Funding for the various projects taken up under the PURA scheme depending on the priority, relevance to the
objectives of the government may come from four sources: MoRD schemes, non-MoRD schemes, private
financing[6]
and Capital Grant under PURA.
MORD schemes[edit]
As the main vision of PURA scheme is the convergence of various schemes and a sustainable framework for
long term maintenance of assets keeping in view the long term vision of the government, most of the capital
expenditure will have to come from government schemes. Only community development schemes would
ordinarily be included as the private partners would find it difficult to manage individual beneficiary schemes
Non-MORD schemes[edit]
The private partners selected shall also be responsible for delivering certain services under schemes of other
ministries, as per the guidelines of those schemes. Alternatively, the concerned Ministry may make funding
available if it finds the service to be very relevant to the local people there and under those schemes through
DRDA.[7]
Private funding[edit]
In some cases and schemes It is possible that the essential infrastructure may not get fully funded by
Government schemes to give equal responsibility and ownership to the private player in such instances wherein
the Developer shall invest some capital of its own to fund the CAPEX of such infrastructure and to meet the
operations and maintenance (O&M) costs. Financing of commercially viable add-on projects will be done fully
through private funding.
Current status of PURA[edit]
Failure of PURA[edit]
Rural Development Minister Jairam Ramesh on 24 February 2012 launched the restructured PURA scheme that
combines rural infrastructure development with economic regeneration in Private Public Partnership (PPP) mode
and seeks to harness the efficiencies of the private sector. He slammed former president APJAbdul Kalam's
concept of PURA(Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas) as a failure. Ramesh said that while the PURA
Launched by Kalam has failed, the reworked PURA will succeed.[8]
The minister was optimistic about the
success of the new PURA because of the difference in the objectives. He was of the view that, now the focus
was on water supply, sanitation, physical infrastructure rather than knowledge connectivity.
Extension to 2000 new towns[edit]
The Rural ministry plans to reform one of its ambitious yet not so successful programme – Provision of Urban
amenities in Rural Areas (PURA) – to facilitate creation of urban infrastructure in around 2,000 new towns that
have been identified by the 2011 decadal Census. It is also trying to restructure the old PURA objectives laid
down by the then President[9]
Under payment of wages MGNREGA scheme[edit]
The Prestigious scheme proposed providing livelihood and urban amenities in compact areas around a potential
growth centre in Gram Panchayats through Public Private Partnership (PPP) framework to provide guarantee
employment to rural areas so that they could have an assured income for at least 100 days of a year. the
scheme is now facing rampant corruption, cases of underpayment of wages have been received by the
government from all over the country.[10]
See also[edit]
 Swaraj
 Central place theory
 Unified settlement planning
 Regional planning
 Spatial planning

17. References[edit]
1. Jump up^ "Energy Self-Sufficient Talukas-A Solution to National Energy Crisis". Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol - XXX No. 51, December 23, 1995.
2. Jump up^ "Talukas can provide critical mass for India’s sustainable development" (PDF). CURRENT SCIENCE,
VOL. 82, NO. 6, 25 MARCH 2002.
3. Jump up^ "Latest Updates...". PURA. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
4. Jump up^ "Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007–2012". Planningcommission.nic.in. Retrieved 4 October2012.
5. Jump up^ "Provision of Urban Amenities in Rural Areas (PURA)" (PDF). Pura.net.in. Retrieved4 October 2012.
6. Jump up^ "Private Co's join hands with Centre for PURA – TeluguPeople.com News". Telugupeople.com. 11
October 2010. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
7. Jump up^ "District Rural Development Agency (DRDA)". Angul.nic.in. 17 March 1997. Retrieved4 October 2012.
8. Jump up^ "Jairam Ramesh criticises APJ Abdul Kalam's PURA, launches his own version – India – DNA". Daily
News and Analysis. 24 February 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
9. Jump up^ Devika Banerji, ET Bureau 11 Oct 2011, 05.12am IST (11 October 2011). "Provision of Urban amenities
in Rural Areas might be extended to 2,000 new towns identified by 2011 Census". The Economic Times.
Retrieved 4 October 2012.
10. Jump up^ PTI (8 December 2011). "MGNREGA scheme: 61 cases of under-payment of wages".The Economic
Times. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
External links[edit]
 PURA Web site
 Institute of Rural Development
 Asian Development Bank
 Ministry of Rural Development)
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