IGU study finds that the switch to natural gas helps mega-cities dramatically improve air quality and reduce emissions of GHG and air pollutants – enhancing and saving lives. On the sidelines of the COP21 negotiations in Paris the IGU has released a major study that highlights the interconnection that exists between reducing greenhouse gas emissions and reducing emissions of other air pollutants. It presents case studies of efforts in four cities — New York, Istanbul, Toronto, and Beijing — that have tackled or are tackling the issue of improving urban air quality and where gas has featured as the main contributor to their efforts. These cities can provide lessons for other cities seeking to reduce the potentially severe health consequences of urban air pollution.
Many forms of atmospheric pollution affect human health
and the environment at levels from local to global. These
contaminants are emitted from diverse sources, and some
of them react together to form new compounds in the air.
Industrialized nations have made important progress toward controlling some pollutants in recent decades, but air quality is much worse in many developing countries, and global circulation patterns can transport some types of pollution rapidly around the world. In this unit, discover the basic chemistry of atmospheric pollution and learn which human activities have the greatest impacts on air quality.
Environmental health Effect and Air Pollution from cigarette smokers in Cross...IOSR Journals
This study is aimed at assessing the cause of air pollution and Environmental health effect on people living in Cross River State using cigarette smokers as a case study. Data was gathered through a well designed and articulated oral and written questionnaires, direct and first-hand observation of the environment, and comprehensive interview sessions were carried out with community Heads (Royal Authorities where possible), patients and youths. A total of one hundred and seventeen thousand (117,000) questionnaires were randomly distributed evenly to men of about 20-75years old in all the Eighteen (18) Local Government Area in Cross River State. Eighty seven thousand, five hundred and thirty three (87,533) valid questionnaire were received back. Nine hundred (900) of the people reported that they do not smoke any cigarette. Table 1 shows the total number of people who smoke cigarette. Table 2a,b show the total number of patients with smoking related diseases. Most of these patients with smoking related diseases such as decrease in lung function, increase of heart attack, Respiratory diseases, cancer, asthma, and other health effects are having those disease conditions as a result of their smoking habits.
Many forms of atmospheric pollution affect human health
and the environment at levels from local to global. These
contaminants are emitted from diverse sources, and some
of them react together to form new compounds in the air.
Industrialized nations have made important progress toward controlling some pollutants in recent decades, but air quality is much worse in many developing countries, and global circulation patterns can transport some types of pollution rapidly around the world. In this unit, discover the basic chemistry of atmospheric pollution and learn which human activities have the greatest impacts on air quality.
Environmental health Effect and Air Pollution from cigarette smokers in Cross...IOSR Journals
This study is aimed at assessing the cause of air pollution and Environmental health effect on people living in Cross River State using cigarette smokers as a case study. Data was gathered through a well designed and articulated oral and written questionnaires, direct and first-hand observation of the environment, and comprehensive interview sessions were carried out with community Heads (Royal Authorities where possible), patients and youths. A total of one hundred and seventeen thousand (117,000) questionnaires were randomly distributed evenly to men of about 20-75years old in all the Eighteen (18) Local Government Area in Cross River State. Eighty seven thousand, five hundred and thirty three (87,533) valid questionnaire were received back. Nine hundred (900) of the people reported that they do not smoke any cigarette. Table 1 shows the total number of people who smoke cigarette. Table 2a,b show the total number of patients with smoking related diseases. Most of these patients with smoking related diseases such as decrease in lung function, increase of heart attack, Respiratory diseases, cancer, asthma, and other health effects are having those disease conditions as a result of their smoking habits.
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with just a few clicks.
Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death in humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or built environment. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution.
Developing World and Occupational Health ImpactsAI Publications
The environment is an integral part of human life the quality of which plays a critical role in human health. Occupational environment presents potential health hazards to workers employed in a variety of positions. This review adds to a growing body of evidence that PM is really harmful to health increasing overall mortality mostly deaths from cardiovascular disease as well as deaths from respiratory diseases.
Assess and Forecast Air Pollution Using Environmental APIsAmbee
With the advancement of air pollution management and research since the 1960s, it has become more important for people to
understand the impact of pollen API and environmental API. The Ambee Pollen API makes it easy for customers to generate data
with just a few clicks.
Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth's atmosphere. It may cause diseases, allergies or death in humans; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or built environment. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution.
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The environment is an integral part of human life the quality of which plays a critical role in human health. Occupational environment presents potential health hazards to workers employed in a variety of positions. This review adds to a growing body of evidence that PM is really harmful to health increasing overall mortality mostly deaths from cardiovascular disease as well as deaths from respiratory diseases.
The past few years have witnessed a growing appeal, both from home and from abroad, that China should reform its diplomatic system and proactively embrace the historic transformation of its relationship
with the world. Especially since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) in 2012, China’s diplomatic system has undergone multiple changes within its basic framework. From the perspective of institutional dynamics, the system is shifting from emphasizing
the role of serving the country’s development to the role of serving the Chinese Dream, that is, the great renewal of the Chinese nation, putting more weight on top-level design, strategic coordination, and multidimensional diplomacy. These changes are determined by China’s
changing role in the world as well as the intrinsic demands of China’s social development. In the future, it is expected that China’s diplomatic system will maintain such a course of transformation, so as to reach a new balance between the existing international system and China’s domestic
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Running head AIR POLLUTION BY HAZE 1AIR POLLUTION BY HAZE 1.docxtoddr4
Running head: AIR POLLUTION BY HAZE 1
AIR POLLUTION BY HAZE 1
Air Pollution by Haze
Student’s Name
Instructor’s Name
Date
Abstract
Air pollution is a critical problem of the modern world, which has posed dangerous toxicological effects to the environment and human health. Haze is among the most significant pollutants of the new civilized world. Haze originates from various emissions; however, industrial processes and vehicular emissions contribute to significant factors that lead to the formation of haze. As documented by the World Health Organization, six principal air contaminants include ground-level ozone, lead, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides, and Sulphur dioxide. Continuous exposure to factors that contribute to the formation of haze promote various toxicological effects on human life such as cardiovascular as well as respiratory ailments, irritation of the eyes, long term chronic ailments like cancer, and neuropsychiatric issues. Air pollution by haze is reported to be a major environmental threat in the progression and incidence of some health complications such as low birth weight, asthma, Alzheimer and Parkinson’ diseases, lung cancer, autism, fetal growth, psychological problems, and ventricular hypertrophy. In this research paper, major causes of pollution by haze are discussed, emission sources and subsequent effects on human wellbeing.
Air Pollution by Haze
The social and economic activities of densely populated areas release large volumes of fine particulate matters. While these fine particulate materials unendingly pile beyond the ability of atmospheric self-cleaning to eradicate it, the haze weather is created. Haze weather is usually a mixture of the effects of stable and static weather. Current scientific studies conducted mostly in western Europe and North America demonstrate that air pollution in urban areas as a result of haze is triggering numerous health issues from eye itching to death. Increase in the speed for urbanization and industrialization in major cities of the world has led to growth in the badness of urban air pollution. “Amounts of fine particles are usually in thousands of micrograms in cubic meter across many cities of the world that are going through modern industrialization” (Astrobum, Apr 30 2017). Grievous installments of air pollution have wrapped a better part of the world. By November 2015, for instance, in China, the cities located to the northern area of the country have recently experienced high levels of haze due to the rise in particulate matter. The particulate matter increased from 360 to 700 µg/m3 up to 28 times much above the levels recommended by the world health organization (WHO).
Exposure to particulate matter has often been linked with numerous health problems; however, issues related to mortality are undeniably the most important to address since they are also among the prevalently amenable issues to the assessment of the world. Most epidemiological da.
Air quality course related to citizen science and evidence-based policy-making in the context of a series of workshops with 2nd-year students at college.
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Under the normal beatification and canonization process, a person who has lived a holy and virtuous life is first declared "venerable," then "blessed" and finally named as a saint. Candidates for sainthood must be shown to have performed two miracles.
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies.EpconLP
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The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
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Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
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different modes of interaction between insects and plants including mutualism, commensalism, antagonism, Pairwise and diffuse coevolution, Plant defenses, how coevolution started
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
ENVIRONMENT~ Renewable Energy Sources and their future prospects.tiwarimanvi3129
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3. 3
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 4
Background on Air Pollution and Climate Action .............................................................................. 4
Common Air Pollutants and Their Health Impacts....................................................................... 5
Comparison of Fossil Fuel Emissions ................................................................................................ 6
Co-Benefits of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Air Pollution .............................. 8
CITY CASE STUDIES ........................................................................................................................................ 9
New York ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Istanbul........................................................................................................................................................ 12
Toronto........................................................................................................................................................ 15
Beijing........................................................................................................................................................... 18
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................................22
4. 4
Introduction
In the run up to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change negotiations
culminating in Paris in December 2015, there has been a great deal of high-level global political
focus on the issue of climate change. As air quality problems in cities from Beijing to New Delhi
become increasingly severe, the links between action to address climate change and to curb
local air pollution have attracted increasing attention as a means to mobilize political support.
This paper highlights the interconnection that exists between reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and reducing emissions of other air pollutants. It presents case studies of efforts
in four cities— New York, Istanbul, Toronto, and Beijing—to improve urban air quality. These
cities can provide lessons for other cities seeking to reduce the potentially severe health
consequences of urban air pollution.
Background on Air Pollution and Climate Action
Outdoor air pollution is among the most significant environmental threats to human health.
According to the World Health Organization, air pollution contributed to 3.7 million premature
deaths each year—and this may be an underestimate since it does not include deaths from
exposure to long-term pollutants other than particulate matter. As more people move to cities
around the world, deaths from urban air pollution will increase substantially.
The current world population is approximately 7.3 billion people, with just over half residing
in urban areas.1
By 2050, the world population is expected to grow to over 9 billion, and the
share of those residents living in cities is projected to boom from 50 to 70% - up to 6.3 billion
people.2
This rapid growth in urban population is expected to occur primarily in middle-income
and developing countries. As cities in developing countries grow, the demand for energy and
transportation will rise accordingly. As a result, the OECD projects that, absent policy changes,
deaths from outdoor air pollution will double from current levels by 2050, with urban outdoor
air pollution becoming the top environmental cause of mortality worldwide (moving ahead of
dirty water and lack of sanitation).3
Addressing urban air quality will increasingly emerge as among our most urgent environmental
challenges, along with issues like climate change and water availability. This report provides
useful case studies of measures taken by cities in the recent past to make improvements to
their air quality. Cities in emerging economies can learn lessons from the experiences of those
in more developed countries about how to expand access to needed energy services while
improving air quality. Experiences in both developed and developing countries demonstrate
that air quality improvements can be made while still promoting economic growth, energy
services, and even industrial growth.
1 UN, “World Urbanization Prospects 2014 Revision,” p. 2, available at:
2 Ibid.
3 OECD, “Environmental Outlook to 2050: The Consequences of Inaction, Key Findings
on Health and Environment,” available at: http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/environment
actnoworfacecostlyconsequenceswarnsoecd.htm.
5. 5
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
Common Air Pollutants and Their Health Impacts
The major components of outdoor air pollution are a combination of gases and dust
particles (particulate matter, or “PM”) that have deleterious human health and environmental
consequences. Health impacts include lung disease, cardiac disease, cancer, and more.
Outdoor air pollution has a variety of human and natural sources, but the most significant
human contributor to outdoor air pollution is the combustion of fuels – primarily fossil fuels. 4
A few of the main components of outdoor air pollution, including their health impacts and
primary sources are:5
Particulate Matter (PM): PM consists of sulfate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black
carbon, mineral dust and water. The most health-damaging particles are those with a diameter
of 10 microns or less (PM10
), especially fine particles of 2.5 microns or less (PM2.5
). PM is
generated from human and natural sources, with PM10
and above often coming from dust
generated in the environment. Combustion of fossil fuels, particularly coal, fuel oil, and diesel,
are a significant source of PM2
.5
.
There is a close relationship between exposure to high levels of PM and impacts on human
health. Long-term exposure to PM2.5
is associated with increased mortality due to lung diseases
and cardiac events. The WHO has recognized PM matter as a carcinogen since 2013.6 Exposure
to PM has health impacts even at very low levels.
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): SO2
is produced from burning fossil fuels (coal and oil) that contain
sulfur. It is one of a group of sulfur oxides that are highly reactive gases.7
SO2
has harmful
health effects and is a major contributor to the formation of acid rain.
SO2
can impact the respiratory system, impair lung function, and cause eye irritation. Studies
have found that hospital admissions for cardiac events and mortality increase on days of high
SO2
concentration.
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2
): NO2
is one of several nitrogen oxides (NOx) produced during
combustion processes, particular higher temperature combustion associated with burning
fossil fuels. NOx are harmful pollutants that have direct health consequences in humans and
contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone and acid rain. NO2
is linked to reduced lung
function and respiratory issues in asthmatic children.
Ozone (O3): Ground-level ozone is a major component of smog and should not be confused
with the ozone layer that filters out UV radiation from the sun. Ground-level (or “tropospheric”)
ozone is produced when gases such as NOx or volatile organic compounds are exposed to
sunlight.
4 S. Icecik, U. Im, “Air Pollution in Megacities: A Case Study of Istanbul,” in Air Pollution –
Modeling, Monitoring and Health, InTech, Ed. M. Khare, 2012, available at: http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs-
wm/33882.pdf.
5 Information for this overview of air pollutants is drawn from the World Health Organization,
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/; and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/.
6 WHO, “IARC: Outdoor Air Pollution a Leading Environmental Cause of Cancer Deaths,” available at: http://
www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/iarcnews/pdf/pr221_E.pdf.
7 Both SO2 and NO2 are considered indicators of the presence of the other sulfur oxides and
nitrogen oxides, respectively. Rather than set standards for each of the separate gas individually, regulatory
bodies typically set standards just for SO2 and NO2. Reports of emissions and concentrations of pollutants
in the air are sometimes done just for SO2 or NO2, and other times are done for the broader group of SOx
and NOx.
6. 6
Excessive ozone in the air can cause breathing problems, trigger asthma, reduce lung function
and cause lung diseases. Increased episodes of mortality are associated with high-ozone days
in cities.
In addition to the specific pollutants identified above, in 2013 the WHO concluded that outdoor
air pollution is a leading environmental cause of cancer deaths. This recent conclusion is just
one example of the growing scientific consensus that air pollution has more severe health
consequences than previously understood.
Given these harmful health effects (as well as harmful environmental effects), governments
have set limits on emissions and have also set limits on the average level of pollutants allowed
in the atmosphere. These limits are typically expressed as micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3
).
Separate guidelines are given for both short-term and long-term exposure levels. These
guidelines are based on scientific studies that have linked different levels of air pollution and
exposure times to different health risks. WHO Guidelines for air pollution levels are in Table 1.8
Table 1: WHO Guidelines for Ambient Air Pollution Concentrations
PM2.5
10 µg/m3
annual mean
25 µg/m3
24-hour mean
PM10
20 µg/m3
annual mean
50 µg/m3
24-hour mean
Ozone (03) 100 µg/m3
8-hour mean
NO2
40 µg/m3
annual mean
200 µg/m3
1-hour mean
SO2
20 µg/m3
24-hour mean
500 µg/m3
10-minute mean
SOURCE: World Health Organization
Comparison of Fossil Fuel Emissions
The amount of pollutants produced from burning fossil fuels depends on a number of
factors, including the type of facility (industrial/commercial scale versus residential), the type
of combustion (boiler versus internal combustion engine), the type of emissions control
technology employed (if any), and the type of fuel burned (including, in particular, the sulfur
content of the fuel).
In the case studies below, there are two primary sources of air pollution examined: large-
scale combustion for electricity generation or industrial use, and smaller-scale combustion for
residential/commercial heating and other use.9
8 WHO, “WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide;
Global update 2005; Summary of risk assessment,” available at: http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/
outdoorair/outdoorair_aqg/en/. There are other health- damaging air pollutants (such as lead and other
heavy metals, and carbon monoxide). Some of these other pollutants may not be as widespread or as well
monitored. This paper focuses on the pollutants listed in the WHO guidelines.
9 Transportation is a major source of urban air pollution. Addressing pollution from mobile
sources will inevitably have to be part of overall strategies to address urban air pollution. The case studies
in this review focus on the policies to address emissions from stationary sources.
7. 7
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
The emissions from burning coal or natural gas in electricity generation can vary greatly based
on the age and efficiency of the generating plant(s) and the emissions controls that are used at
the plant. Control technologies could include technologies to capture SO2
during combustion
or to remove it from exhaust gases, to lower combustion temperatures to reduce the amount
of NO2
produced during combustion, or to filter some of the PM from exhaust gases. Table 2
provides an estimate of the average emissions per megawatt hour of generation from the U.S.
electricity sector in 2005. These averages reflect the variety of emissions controls technologies
that are deployed across the U.S. electricity sector.
Table 2: Average Pounds of Pollutant-Forming Emissions per MWh
for U.S. Coal and Natural Gas Power Plants, 2005
Coal Natural Gas
SO2
12 .045
NO2
4.1 2.3
PM2.5
.59 .11
PM10
.72 .12
SOURCE: Hidden Costs of Energy: Unpriced Consequences of Energy Production and Use, National
Academies Press, 2010, Tables 2-11, 2-16.
Figure 1 shows a comparison of emissions from residential or commercial combustion of
different heating fuels – coal, No. 6 (heavy) fuel oil, No. 2 (light) fuel oil, and natural gas. These
are emissions from much smaller-boilers or space heaters than the electricity generating fleet
in the U.S. and operate with many fewer, if any, control technologies to reduce emissions.
Figure 1: Comparison of Emissions from Different Fuels
EmissionsperBTU,CoalEquals1
SOURCE: EPA AP-42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors; CenSARA Area Combustion Emissions
Inventory Enhancement Project – Final Report 2011
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
NOx SOx PM2.5
C02
Coal
No.6 Oil
No. 2 Oil
Natural Gas
8. 8
Co-Benefits of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Air Pollution
There are many connections between climate change and health-damaging air pollution. For
example, climate change is likely to exacerbate local air pollution problems, meaning even
more stringent air pollution controls may be necessary going forward.10
More importantly,
the burning of fossil fuels predominantly causes both greenhouse gas emissions and local
air pollution. As a result, many efforts to reduce GHG emissions can also reduce emissions
of health-damaging pollutants, and vice-versa. As shown in Figure 1, the fuel switching that
reduces health-damaging air pollutants also has a tendency to reduce CO2
emissions.
The most common strategies for reducing GHG emissions and emissions of health-damaging
air pollutants are to:
1. Improve end-use energy efficiency;
2. Increase combustion efficiency (reducing or eliminating black carbon and other products
of incomplete combustion);
3. Encourage fuel switching; and
4. Increase use of non-combustion renewables. 11
The impacts of air pollution are felt primarily locally, while the impacts of greenhouse gas
emissions are global. A ton of GHG emission in New York contributes to climate change just
as much as a ton in Beijing. As a result, free-rider concerns pose a barrier to action to mitigate
carbon emissions. Concerns about local pollution have thus often been a greater motivation
for urban areas to reduce emissions, and those actions often (though not always) have climate
benefits as well.12
Switching from fossil fuels to non-emitting renewables such as wind or solar
electricity generation (or nuclear) would eliminate such emissions, although even in the most
aggressive climate policy scenarios run by the International Energy Agency and others, fossil
fuels remain a significant part of the global energy mix for decades to come.
10 D. Jacob, D. Winner, “Effect of climate change on air quality,” Atmospheric Environment, 43(1), 51-63,
available at: http://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/ 3553961/Jacob_EffectClimate.pdf?sequence=2.
11 K. Smith, A. Woodward, et al., “Human health: impacts, adaptation, and co-benefits,” Climate Change
2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, p. 737, available at:
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2 /WGIIAR5-Chap11_FINAL.pdf.
12 M. Kojima, M. Lovei, “Urban Air Quality Management: Coordinating Transport, Environment, and Energy
Policies in Developing Countries,” World Bank Technical Paper No. 508, September (2001), p. 5; available at:
http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/0-8213-4948-1.
13 New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, “New York City Trends in Air Pollution
and its Health Consequences,” 2013, p. 2, available at: http://www.nyc.gov/ html/doh/downloads/pdf/
environmental/air-quality-report-2013.pdf.
9. 9
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
CITY CASE STUDIES
The cities reviewed in these following case studies, New York, Istanbul, Toronto, and Beijing,
each has implemented targeted policy initiatives to address its urban air pollution problems.
They were selected because they each provide an example of an effort to reduce emissions
from stationary sources. They represent both developed and emerging economies and
represent varying degrees of regulatory capacity. Although effective policies to combat
urban air pollution are highly dependent on the context in any given city (e.g., the level of
development, climate patterns, regulatory capacity, economic activity, etc.), the efforts in these
cities can provide lessons in addressing urban air pollution.
NEW YORK: Targeted Reforms in Residential and Commercial Heating
Although New York City’s air quality has been improving for several decades, air pollution
remains a serious concern. In 2007, the levels of Ozone and PM2.5
exceeded United States
Environmental Protection Agency standards. That same year, New York City launched PlaNYC,
its first long-term sustainability plan. PlaNYC included the goal of making New York City’s air the
cleanest of any large city in the United States, as measured by levels of PM2.5.
A comprehensive air-quality monitoring program was launched with PlaNYC. The initial results
from that air quality program showed that not only were PM2.5
and ozone levels above national
standards, but also that PM2.5
and SO2
levels were particularly elevated in areas with a high
density of buildings burning heavy fuel oil (Grades No. 4 or No. 6) for heat and/or power.13
The neighborhoods with higher traffic or higher density buildings burning heavy fuel oil had
annual average PM2.5
levels that were 30% higher than areas with less traffic or fewer buildings
burning those dirty fuels.14
14 The City of New York, PlanNYC update April 2011, p. 122, available at: http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc/
downloads/pdf/publications/planyc_2011_planyc_full_report.pdf The local PM2.5 pollution from heavy fuel
oil was particularly acute. The City estimated that in 2005 the 10,000 buildings burning heavy heating oil
produced more PM2.5 than all on-road vehicle transportation in the city. New York City Department of
Health and Mental Hygiene, “New York City Trends in Air Pollution and its Health Consequences,” 2013, p. 2.
In 2008, the heavy-heating oil buildings burned 27% of the heating oil burned in New York (the remainder
burned No. 2 heating oil) but accounted for 86% of the particulate matter emissions from buildings. EDF,
‘The bottom of the barrel: How the dirtiest heating oil pollutes our air and harms our health,” p.3 n.9,
available at: http://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/10086_EDF_BottomBarrel_Exec_Summ.pdf. The SO2
emissions from the heavy heating oil buildings were also disproportionately high because of the high sulfur
content of the fuel oil.
10. 10
The city concluded that although more than half of the PM2.5 originated outside of the city,
health benefits could be achieved by reducing the consumption of heavy heating oil within city
limits.
To address this challenge, New York City initiated and supported a number of state and local
regulatory reforms and incentive programs, including:
• Working with other groups to get the State of New York to reduce the allowed sulfur content
in No. 2 fuel oil to 15 ppm, a 99% reduction;15
• Passing a local law in 2010 to cut in half the sulfur content allowed in No. 4 heating oil (from
3,000 ppm to 1,500 ppm) and requiring all heating oil to contain 2% renewable biodiesel by
October 2012;16
• Issuing regulations in 2011 to phase out No. 4 and No. 6 heating oil; first by requiring
all boilers in the City to burn No. 4 oil (or cleaner) by 2015, then by requiring all boilers to
transition to the cleanest available fuels (natural gas, ultra-low sulfur No. 2 oil or equivalent)
by 2030;17
• Launching a voluntary “Clean Heat Program” in 2011 to encourage early adoption of cleaner
fuels by providing technical and financial assistance to building owners.18
The city also noted it would try to accelerate the heating oil phase-out by aiding in the
development of natural gas transmission pipelines and working with utilities and neighborhoods
to try to cluster buildings in underserved neighborhoods where additional gas distribution could
have the greatest air quality benefits.19
As a result of these policies, by the fall of 2013, approximately 30% of heavy fuel-burning
buildings (2,700 out of 9,000) in New York City converted to cleaner fuels. Approximately 75% of
those that made the switch converted to natural gas or ultra-low sulfur No. 2 oil. The conversion
to natural gas was particularly strong because of market factors such as the increased natural
gas supply to the New York area and lower prices.20
By mid-2015, the phase-out of No. 6 fuel oil
was complete, and all buildings had converted to No. 2 heating oil or natural gas.
A September 2013 air quality report found that the SOx concentration in the winter of 2012-
2013 was down 69% compared to the winter of 2008-2009, while the PM2.5 level from burning
fuel oil was down 35 percent. 21
The benefits were greatest in the areas that had the highest
concentrations of these pollutants because of their proximity to buildings burning heavy fuel oil.
(See Figure 2).
15 New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, “New York City Trends in Air Pollution and its
Health Consequences,” p.3.
16 New York City Local Law No. 43 (2010), available at: http://www.nyc.gov/html/ dep/pdf/air/ll43.pdf.
17 New York City Department of Environmental Protection, Promulgation of Amendments to
Chapter 2 of Title 15 of the Rules of the City of New York Rules Governing the Emissions from the Use of
#4 and #6 Fuel Oil in Heat and Hot Water Boilers and Burners, 2011. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/pdf/air/
heating_oil_rule.pdf.
18 New York City Clean Heat, available at: https://www.nyccleanheat.org/content/what-nyc-clean-heat.
19 The City of New York, PlanNYC update April 2011, p.106.
20 New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, “New York City Trends in Air Pollution and its
Health Consequences,” 2013, p.3.
21 http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/downloads/pdf/140422_PlaNYCP-Report_FINAL_Web.pdf, p. 26.
The winter of 2012-2013 was slightly warmer than that in 2008- 2009, which would mean there were
fewer heating days. The warmer temperature in 2012-2013 was not substantial enough to account for the
observed emissions reductions. New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, “New York City
Trends in Air Pollution and its Health Consequences,” p. 7.
11. 11
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
Figure 2: Comparison of Estimated Nickel Concentrations in PM2.5
SOURCE: New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene
The measures to eliminate No. 6 heating oil, along with other city and state regulatory
measures (such as reducing the sulfur content of on-road diesel in New York) and market
trends (such as displacing fuel oil from power generation with cheaper natural gas in the New
York City area), helped New York City meet the EPA standards for PM2.5 levels in 2014 for the
first time since the standards were promulgated in 1997.22
The City estimated that the overall
improvement in PM2.5 levels in New York City contributes to 780 fewer deaths in the city and
over 2,000 fewer emergency room visits each year. 23
From 2005 to 2013, New York City buildings also reduced their GHG emissions by 19%. The city
noted that the two main factors in this improvement were the decrease in the carbon intensity
of the electricity used by buildings and the buildings’ switching from fuel oil to natural gas.24
New York’s combination of local and regional regulatory measures on fuel oil quality, combined
with the voluntary Clean Heat program, enabled it to achieve important reductions in emissions
in the city. The comprehensive air-quality monitoring program was an additional significant
measure that allowed the city to not only identify the strategy that could have the biggest
impact on air quality, but also to determine how the emissions reductions contributed to
changes in air quality at a very localized level.
22 http://www.dec.ny.gov/press/96759.html. From 2005 to 2008, local power plants that could burn either
fuel oil or natural gas increasingly burned natural gas because it was cheaper. In that time, the percentage
of heavy oil used for electricity generation in New York decreased from 30% to 2%. These gains occurred
before the detailed air quality monitoring program was implemented, so are not reflected in the 2008-2012
improvements. But they are gains that helped the New York metro area meet PM2.5 standards. http://www.
nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/environmental/air- quality-report-2013.pdf, p.3.
23 New York City, “PlaNYC Progress Report 2014,” p. 26, available at: http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/
downloads/pdf/140422_PlaNYCP- Report_FINAL_Web.pdf. These estimates were based on the scale of
improvement measured between the 2005-2007 timeframe, and the 2012-2013 time frame.
24 New York City, “Inventory of New York City Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” 2014, p. 13, available at: http://
www.nyc.gov/html/planyc/downloads/pdf/NYC_GHG_Inventory_ 2014.pdf.
Winter 2008-2009 Winter 2012-2013
Community Districts
MILES
> 31.15
< 3.13
Ni (ng/m3
)
M
0 1 2 4 6
12. 12
ISTANBUL: Eliminating the Dirtiest Fuels in Residential Use
Beginning with the oil crisis in the 1970s, households in Istanbul switched from fuel oil to coal
for domestic heating. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s Istanbul experienced worsening air
quality coinciding with population growth and increasing use of coal for domestic heating. The
coal being used was primarily a Turkish lignite coal that was relatively low quality and high in
sulfur.25
The high sulfur content of the lignite contributed to very high levels of SO2
in Istanbul. In
1992, the annual mean SO2 concentration in Istanbul peaked at above 220 µg/m3.26
This
concentration is approximately 11 times higher than the current WHO guidelines for 24-hour
concentration.
Istanbul’s primary strategy in addressing its air pollution problem was to provide an alternative
residential heating fuel. In the late 1980s, the city formed a gas distribution company, IGDAS,
that began installing the necessary infrastructure to distribute gas to Istanbul residents.
Although Turkey has no significant domestic natural gas production, Istanbul and other cities in
Turkey were able to take advantage of Turkey’s growing role as an energy hub at that time, as
several major pipelines from Central Asia, Russia, the Caucuses, and Iran began transmission
through the country to supply part of Europe’s gas in the 1980s.27
In 1992, the Istanbul city government banned the most polluting lignite coal. IGDAS started to
distribute natural gas in January 1992.28
By 1998, natural gas was supplying approximately half
of the residential heating needs in Istanbul.29
In addition, the city and IGDAS established an
international research center in 1999 to adapt the technical norms to the local market and train
the IGDAS staff.30
25 Around 68% of the total lignite reserves in Turkey have very low heat content, below 2000 kcal/kg. The
remaining reserves have 23.5% between 2000-3000 kcal/kg, 5.1% between 3000- 4000 kcal/kg, and 3.4%
above 4000 kcal/kg. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources available at: http://www.
enerji.gov.tr/en-US/Pages/Coal.
26 OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews, Turkey 1999, p. 71.
27 E. Verdeil, et al., “Governing the transition to natural gas in Mediterranean Metropolis: The case of Cairo,
Istanbul and Sfax (Tunisia),” Energy Policy 78 (2015), p. 238.
13. 13
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
Over approximately 20 years from 1992, when the first gas was distributed, to 2012,
the distribution network in Istanbul expanded to cover 97% of urbanized territory in the
metropolitan municipality and to supply nearly 5 million residential customers.
As a result of these changes, Istanbul’s air quality has improved dramatically. First, as shown in
Figure 3, particulate matter declined from over 100 micrograms per cubic meter in the early
1990s, to just above 50 by 1997.31
Figure 3: Istanbul Annual Average Particulate Matter Concentrations 1986-1997
SOURCE: OECD Environmental Performance Reviews, Turkey 1999
Second, as shown in Figure 4, SO2
concentrations also began an immediate decline
in the early 1990s. By the end of the 1990’s SO2
had fallen nearly 90%, but the annual
average concentration remained above the WHO standard daily average of 10 µg/m3
. The
concentrations have continued to decline and were approximately 5 µg/m3
in 2011 and 2012.
28 S. Icecik, U. Im, “Air Pollution in Megacities: A Case Study of Istanbul,” in Air Pollution – Modeling,
Monitoring and Health, InTech, Ed. M. Khare, 2012, p. 92.29 A. Durmayaz, et al., “An application of the
degree-hours method to estimate the residential
heating energy requirement and fuel consumption in Istanbul,” Energy 25 (2000), p. 1255.
30 E. Verdeil, et al., “Governing the transition to natural gas in Mediterranean Metropolis: The case of Cairo,
Istanbul and Sfax (Tunisia),” Energy Policy 78 (2015), pp.238-240.
31 OECD, Environmental Performance Reviews, Turkey 1999, p.71.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
MicrogramsperCubicMeter
PM
14. 14
Figure 4: Istanbul Annual Average SO2 Concentrations 1988-2012
Source: IGDAS
Levels of other pollutants – NO2
, PM, and Ozone – remain elevated, largely due to the increased
traffic in Istanbul over the past twenty years. But the concentrations of these pollutants are
lower than they would have been had Istanbul not engaged in the aggressive measures to
promote fuel switching.32
The experience in Istanbul shows how long-term planning is essential to deploy the necessary
infrastructure to support emissions reduction strategies. IGDAS was formed in the late 1980s
but it took 25 years to provide near-universal access to natural gas for Istanbul residents.
Istanbul also demonstrates that important gains in emissions reductions can be achieved
relatively quickly, even before the full infrastructure network is deployed, as the combination of
eliminating the dirtiest coal and beginning fuel-switching to natural gas produced the biggest
gains in the early years of the policy.
32 S. Icecik, U. Im, “Air Pollution in Megacities: A Case Study of Istanbul,” in Air Pollution – Modeling,
Monitoring and Health, InTech, Ed. M. Khare, 2012.
33 Toronto Public Health. “Path to Healthier Air: Toronto Air Pollution Burden of Illness Update. Technical
Report,” 2014, p. 1, available at: http://www1.toronto.ca// City Of Toronto/Toronto Public Health/Healthy
Public Policy/Report Library/PDF Reports Repository/2014 Air Pollution Burden of Illness Tech RPT final.
pdf, p.1. The Ontario Medical Association had published an influential report in 2000, which estimated that
province-wide the health impacts of ozone and PM2.5 would contribute to 1,900 premature deaths and
9,800 hospitalizations in Ontario in 2000. IISD, “The End of Coal: Ontario’s coal phase-out,” 2015, p. 11,
available at: https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/ files/publications/end-of-coal-ontario-coal-phase-out.pdf.
SOx
WHO Guideline for 24-hr 0
50
100
150
200
250
1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2010 20122008
MicrogramsperCubicMeter
15. 15
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
TORONTO: Province-Wide Coal Phase-out
While air pollution, unlike GHG emissions, has predominantly local causes and impacts, it can
still spread over wide areas that span multiple governmental jurisdictions. Toronto faced this
challenge in addressing its urban air quality problems.
In 2004, Toronto Public Health estimated (based on 1999 data) that air pollution in the city
contributed to 1,700 premature deaths and 6,000 hospitalizations per year.33
In 2014, Toronto
Public Health estimated that improved air quality over the subsequent decade (based on 2009
data) resulted in premature deaths and hospitalizations being reduced to 1,300 and 3,550
respectively.
These improvements in the health statistics were based on improvements in air quality in
Toronto over the first decade of this century: SO2 went down 79% and NOx went down 36%
from 2000- 2011; CO dropped 78% from 2001-2011; and PM2.5 dropped 30% from 2003-2011.
The air quality improvements were driven by reductions in emissions in Toronto, Ontario, and
the U.S. Great Lakes states that are substantial sources of upwind pollution for Toronto and
Ontario. Toronto Public Health estimated in 2014 that 51% of the premature deaths and 45%
of the hospitalizations were attributable to sources outside of Toronto. 34
As with the previous case studies, the air quality improvements in Toronto were driven by a
variety of policies, but Toronto’s story is unique in that a key policy was the decision by Ontario
to eliminate coal from its electricity generation.35
The Toronto Board of Public Health, on several
occasions in the early 2000s, advocated for converting Ontario’s coal-fired generators to natural
gas.36
The political support for such a policy extended beyond Toronto to much of the rest of
Ontario. Concerns about the health impacts of air pollution were a key driver of the move to
phase out coal.
34 Toronto Public Health. “Path to Healthier Air: Toronto Air Pollution Burden of Illness Update. Technical
Report,” 2014, p. 3.
35 IISD, “The End of Coal: Ontario’s coal phase-out,” 2015, p. 11.
36 Toronto Public Health. “Path to Healthier Air: Toronto Air Pollution Burden of Illness Update. Technical
Report,” 2014, p. 20.
37 IISD, “The End of Coal: Ontario’s coal phase-out,” 2015, p. 5.
16. 16
Several factors made such a phase-out easier in Ontario than it might be in other jurisdictions.
First, in 2000 when the phase-out movement was gaining steam, coal-fired generation only
accounted for approximately 25% of Ontario’s energy supply. Nuclear and hydro provided most
of the remainder. Second, all of the coal was imported to the province, meaning there were
fewer job impacts from and less intense political opposition to a phase-out. Finally, Ontario
owned the generation facilities, meaning it could make the decision to phase out coal and
absorb any extra costs. 37
When the plan to phase out coal was first considered in 2001-2002, the focus was on replacing
the lost generating capacity with renewables. Concerns about cost and reliability of supply led
the Ontario government to commission a feasibility study. In 2005, that study recommended a
combination of expanded nuclear generation and additional natural gas generation as the most
cost-effective way to phase out coal and reduce emissions. 38
The phase-out began with the shut down of a generating station directly southeast of Toronto
in 2005. From 2010 to 2013, three more coal plants were taken offline and the last plant in the
province stopped using coal in 2014. Over this time period, coal generation was replaced by
increased generation from natural gas, expansion of nuclear generation, and, in recent years,
the deployment of renewables. 39
Figure 5: Fuel Mix in Ontario’s Electricity Sector 2003-2014
SOURCE: Ontario Independent Electricity System Operator; IISD
38 Ibid., p. 11.
39 Ibid., p.4.
Coal
Gas/Oil
Wind/Biofuel/Solar
Hydro
Nuclear
180
OntarioAnnualElectricityProduction(TWh)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
17. 17
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
The emissions reductions from the electricity sector during this time were substantial. Between
2004 (the year before the first coal plant was retired) and 2013, PM10, SO2, and NO2 emissions
from electricity generation declined by 90%, 91%, and 65%, respectively. Phasing out coal in
electricity generation was the most significant among the many policies Toronto and Ontario
adopted during this time frame to reduce local air pollution. In 2013, the Ontario electricity
sector emitted less than 4 % of the SOx in the province, down from around 30% a decade
earlier. NOx and PM10 emissions also dropped sharply (from 12 to 5% and 7 to less than 1%,
respectively).
Figure 6: Emissions from Electricity Generation as a Percent of Total Ontario Emissions
SOURCE: Canada National Pollutant Report Inventory, Author’s Analysis
(PM10 emissions exclude open sources such as road dust, agriculture, and construction)
The coal phase-out in Ontario was a key part of improving Toronto’s air quality over the past
decade. The unique circumstances in Ontario allowed it to pursue a strategy that might not
be possible everywhere – a complete coal phase-out. It nonetheless highlights the benefit
of flexibility in pursuing a fuel-switching strategy. The decommissioned coal capacity has
been replaced by increased capacity from nuclear, natural gas, and renewables. The ability
of additional natural gas capacity to be built and deployed rapidly helped accelerate the
timeframe for, and reduce any impact from, the coal phase-out. This allowed emissions
reductions to begin earlier without having to wait for the additional capacity from nuclear and
renewables to become available.
0.0%
5.0%
10.0%
15.0%
20.0%
25.0%
30.0%
35.0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
SOx
NOx
PM 10
18. 18
BEIJING: Aggressive Policies Aimed at Tackling Some of the Worst Urban Air Pollution
in the World
The problem of air pollution is widespread throughout Chinese cities, but is particularly severe
in and around Beijing.40
For years, the exact scope of the air quality problems was difficult to
assess because there was not sufficient publicly available monitoring data. Beginning around
the time of the Beijing Olympics in 2008, the U.S. Embassy in Beijing began publicizing daily
measurements of local air quality. After initially resisting the publication of this information,
in 2012 the Chinese government began putting in place a system of air quality monitoring
throughout the country.
The monitoring has highlighted the poor air quality in Chinese cities. The average PM2.5
levels in
China’s urban areas are often 6 times higher than WHO standards. This level of air pollution is
estimated to contribute to approximately 1.2 – 1.641
million deaths per year in China. The high
end of this range would mean air pollution is responsible for 1 out of every 6 deaths in China.
Around 50% of this air pollution burden is attributable to coal.42
These estimates of the impact of air pollution are from years after which China had already
made progress in improving urban air quality. For example, China reduced sulfur dioxide
concentrations by more than 50% in many of its major cities by utilizing an emissions trading
system.43
Also, from 2006-2010, China closed 76.8 gigawatts of the most polluting coal-fired
power plants.44
Despite this progress, pollution continued to worsen as the economy and coal
use expanded.
As with Toronto, air pollution in the Beijing area highlights the need for regional coordination.
Approximately 40% of Beijing’s PM2.5
pollution comes from outside of Beijing, primarily from
Tianjin and Hebei areas. (Figure 7) On high haze days, it is estimated that up to 90% of Beijing’s
PM2.5
pollution may originate elsewhere. (Some of Beijing’s pollution has even contributed to air
quality problems in California.45
)
40 R. Rohde, R. Muller, “Air Pollution in China: Mapping of Concentrations and Sources,” PLoS ONE 10(8),
2015. Available at: http://berkeleyearth.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/China-Air- Quality-Paper-
July-2015.pdf.
41 R. Rohde, R. Muller, “Air Pollution in China: Mapping of Concentrations and Sources,” PLoS
ONE 10(8), 2015.
42 A 2014 study estimated that coal combustion contributed to 670,000 premature deaths in 2012 in
China. L. Jing, “670,000 smog-related deaths a year: the cost of China’s reliance on coal,” South China
Morning Post, Nov. 4, 2014, available at: http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1632163/670000-deaths-
year-cost-chinas-reliance-coal.
19. 19
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
Figure 7: Origin of PM2.5
Pollution in Beijing/Tianjin/Hebei Area, 2010
SOURCE: Paulson Institute, Climate Change, Air Quality and the Economy:
Integrating Policy for China’s Economic and Environmental Prosperity
Recognizing the need to improve urban air quality, China has promulgated a number of new
laws and regulations in recent years. The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region has been identified as one
of the priority areas in which China is seeking to make the most substantial improvements. In
2013 and 2014 the average PM2.5
levels in that area were more than 10 times greater than the
WHO recommended levels.
The revised laws and regulations contain several key initiatives, many of which involve
particularly ambitious goals for the most polluted areas, such as the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei
region:46
• China has toughened its ambient air quality standards and emissions limits. For example, in
2012-2013, for the first time, the government issued standards for PM2.5 levels.
• China has increased the enforcement powers of its environmental agencies, which had
previously been criticized for lax enforcement;
43 Bloomberg Brief, “China’s Smog: Clearing Skies Without Killing Growth,” 2015, p.7, available at: http://
www.bloombergbriefs.com/content/uploads/sites/2/2015/05/China-Smog.pdf.
44 Ibid.
45 J. Lin, et al., “China’s international trade and air pollution in the United States,” Proceedings of the
National Academy of Science, 111(5), 2014, pp. 1736-1741.
46 Paulson Institute, “Climate Change, Air Quality and the Economy, Integrating Policy for China’s
Economic and Environmental Prosperity,” 2015, available at: http://www.paulsoninstitute.org/wp-content/
uploads/2015/06/Climate-Change-Air-Quality-and- the-Economy-Integrating-Policy-for-China’s-Economic-
and-Environmental-Prosperity.pdf.
Beijing Tianjin Hebei
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
From within province/city
From other parts of
Beijing/Tianjin/Hebei area
From outside Beijing
20. 20
• Chinese leadership has made achieving the new environmental standards a political priority,
such that there is more incentive for local officials to take actions that may adversely impact
GDP numbers by reducing excess production capacity in order to improve environmental
measures;47
• China has adopted a variety of policies and goals to promote increased generation from
renewables, increased supply and infrastructure to distribute natural gas, and increased
nuclear generation.48
The current goal for the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region is to reduce PM2.5
levels 25% by 2017.
The specific action plan includes decommissioning the highest emitting vehicles, prohibiting
construction of any new heavy polluting industries, and replacing coal with renewables and
natural gas.49
The plan also provides that local officials will be judged not only by the usual
quantitative performance measures (such as meeting PM2.5
standards), but also on specific
initiatives they undertake, such as fostering cleaner production or green buildings.50
The goal is
to reduce coal consumption in Beijing by 57% by 2017, and in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region
overall by 16%.51
In early 2015, the government announced that the last of Beijing’s four coal
power plants would shut down in 2016. The plan is to replace the generating capacity with four
new natural gas power plants that would have 2.6 times greater capacity.52
There are several factors that make it difficult to judge how effective these policies will be.
First, the policies and goals have only recently been developed and are still in early stages of
implementation. Second, air quality monitoring data for major Chinese cities only dates back a
few years (to 2012 or 2013). Third, lack of enforcement of environmental measures has been a
problem previously. Nonetheless, there are signs that the air in Beijing may be improving.
During the first half of 2015, Beijing’s PM2.5 levels decreased. A preliminary analysis from
the Paulson Institute indicates that the decrease is not attributable to natural factors such as
having fewer cold days requiring heating or a change in wind patterns. (Figure 8).
47 E. Spegele, “China War on Pollution Benefits From Economic Slowdown,” Wall Street Journal, July
20, 2015, available at: http://www.wsj.com/articles/china-war-on-pollution-benefits-from- economic-
slowdown-1437410558.
48 Paulson Institute, “Climate Change, Air Quality and the Economy, Integrating Policy for
China’s Economic and Environmental Prosperity,” 2015, pp. 16-17.
49 Ibid., p. 20.
50 Ibid., p. 20.
51 Ibid., p.51.
52 Bloomberg, “Beijing to Close All Major Coal Power Plants to Curb Pollution,” Mar. 23, 2015, available at:
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-03-24/beijing-to-close-all-major-coal- power-plants-to-curb-
pollution.
53 A. Hove, et al., “Beijing Blue Skies, Is This the New Normal?” Paulson Institute, June 24, 2015, available at:
http://www.paulsoninstitute.org/paulson-blog/2015/06/24/beijing-blue-skies-is-this- the-new-normal/.
21. 21
Case Studies in Improving Urban Air Quality
Figure 8: Beijing Actual PM2.5 Levels Compared to Predicted Levels Based on Weather
SOURCE: Greenpeace; Paulson Institute, “Beijing Blue Skies – Is This the New Normal?”
It is too early to tell exactly what is driving the improved air quality, but there are several trends
that could be contributing to reduced emissions. First, from January to April coal consumption
in China was down 8% compared to the previous year.53 Second, production from some
particularly polluting industrial sectors, such as steel, were flat or down through the first four
months of the year.54
Whether the emissions reductions are a result of the pollution control
policies, a general economic slowdown in China, a continued restructuring of the Chinese
economy away from heavy industry, or some other factor will likely not be known for several
years.
54 Ibid.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Actual
Predicted based on weather
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 HI
22. 22
CONCLUSION
Addressing urban air pollution is one of the most important environmental/health challenges
the world currently faces. With a growing global urban population, particularly in middle-income
and developing countries, the challenge of addressing this air pollution problem will only
increase.
Many of the policies that can address urban air pollution also reduce GHG emissions (and
vice- versa). Recognizing the connections between the health-damaging pollutants and climate-
damaging pollutants can help maximize the benefits and efficiency of policy actions.
The city case studies examined in this paper demonstrate that tackling air pollution does not
have to mean sacrificing economic growth and the expansion of energy services. New York,
Istanbul, and Toronto each faced different pollution challenges. Each was able to enact a
comprehensive set of policies – including promoting fuel switching—to make real progress in
reducing the air pollution burden without harming economic growth. In the Beijing area, which
currently faces some of the worst urban air pollution in the world, there are early hopeful signs
of progress, although uncertainty remains about what exactly is driving improved air quality.
Continuing to examine and monitor the impact of policies in these cities can help define a path
for other developing cities and countries to meet their air quality and climate goals.